Planning and utilisation of rock caverns and tunnels in Norway

This paper describes the extensive use of rock caverns and tunnels in Norway. Caverns are used for a variety of storage purposes such as storing of food, drinking water, oil and other liquid hydrocarbons, pressurised gas and air and industrial waste. Caverns are also used for industrial and municipal installations such as hydropower caverns and water and sewage treatment plants. A third main category of use in Norway involves dual purpose caverns used as civil defence shelters in war time and for entertainment and recreation (e.g. sports halls and swimming pools) in peace time. The intent of this paper is to discuss why these various underground space applications developed, to show the typical layout considerations for the different types of application and to introduce reference examples from the Norwegian experience.     

Norwegian oil and gas storage in rock caverns-Technology based on experience from hydropower development

Underground storage in rock caverns is widely used in Norway for many different petroleum products,such as crude oil,fuel,propane and butane.Basically,the caverns for such storages are unlined,i.e.containment is ensured without using any steel lining or membrane.The main basis for the storage technology originates from the extensive hydropower development in Norway.As part of this activity,about 4500 km of tunnels and shafts have been excavated,and around 200 large powerhouse caverns have been constructed.The hydropower tunnels are mainly unlined,with hydrostatic water pressure on unlined rock of up to 1000 m.Some of the projects also include air cushion chambers with volumes of up to 1×10⁵m³and air pressure up to 7.7 MPa.Many lessons which are valuable also for underground oil and gas storage have been learnt from these projects.For a storage project to become successful,systematic,well planned design and ground investigation procedures are crucial.The main steps of the design procedure are first to define the optimum location of the project,and then to optimize orientation,shape/geometry and dimensions of caverns and tunnels.As part of the procedure,ground investigations have to be carried out at several steps integrated with the progress of design.The investigation and design procedures,and the great significance of these for the project to become successful will be discussed.Case examples of oil and gas storage in unlined rock caverns are given,illustrating the relevancy of experience from high-pressure hydropower projects for planning and design of unlined caverns for oil and gas storage.     

Hydrocarbon storage in unlined rock caverns: Norway's use and experience

In Norway, approximately 10 large unlined cavern storage plants for crude and refined oil products currently are in operation, and two are under construction. A large number of small underground storage plants for refined oil products, consisting of steel tanks in rock caverns, also are in operation. The caverns are constructed in mostly good quality rock of the Precambrian or Cambro-Silurian age, and few stability problems have occured. Cavern spans up to 22 m and heights up to 40 m have been used. Bolting and shotcrete are partly used to increase rock mass stability. Norwegian experience indicates that for installations larger than roughly 50,000 m³, unlined rock caverns would be the most cost advantageous alternative. Other advantages are better environmental protection, better security with regard to fire and explosion hazard and sabotage, and lesser land requirements.     

惠州地下水封油库三维非恒定渗流场研究

水封地下油库渗流场的分布是油库区地下水管理和油库运行方案的基本依据之一。为了解惠州水封地下油库区地下水在施工期和运行期的变化情况,应用三维非恒定流数值方法对复杂水文条件下的洞库区渗流场进行模拟,分析了不同初始地下水位条件对洞库区围岩渗流场的影响,探讨了施工期水幕系统不注水条件对油库运行的影响。研究表明:储油主洞开挖期间,水幕系统不注水将导致洞库围岩出现大范围的非饱和区,从而影响洞库多品种油品的储存。运行期水幕注水时的水封效果良好,洞库区围岩在进行灌浆处理后的涌水量较小。     

Ground behaviour and rock mass composition in underground excavations

Underground excavations like tunnels, caverns shafts, are located in a vast variety of rock mass and ground conditions with different modes of behaviour. The paper describes the main parameters and features determining the behaviour of the ground surrounding an underground excavation, namely: (1) the ground conditions (rock mass, stresses and water) and (2) the project related features, (size and shape of the opening and excavation method). Based on this a simple, qualitative division of the rock masses is presented, which together with the influence of stresses, ground water and dimension of the excavation, is used to find the probable behaviour. This may help the user to select appropriate rock engineering tool(s) for the geotechnical design as has been described by the two authors in an earlier paper.     

Design and construction aspects of unlined oil storage caverns in rock

An underground oil storage facility comprising six storage caverns is under construction in southern Korea. Each of the horseshoe-shaped caverns is 18 m wide, 30 m high, and 400–600 m long. The artificial water curtain system used consisted of water curtain tunnels and horizontal boreholes drilled from these tunnels, and pre-grouting measures have been introduced to keep the bedrock saturated all the time in order prevent oil from migrating through rock mass. The results of site investigation show that the bedrock at the site was very competent and impermeable and, hence, a suitable medium for the storage of oil. This conclusion was confirmed later by the results of design analysis, the revised instrumentation program, and hydraulic tests performed during construction. In general, design concepts for the excavation and support and water curtain system have been verified to be reasonably good in terms of the technical soundness and economy. The results of the revised instrumentation program indicate that the three-dimensional excavation behaviour is complex and should be studied in more detail.     

Investigation and assessment of pre-grouted rock mass

Pre-grouting is a technique for reducing water ingress into tunnels and caverns by grouting fractures and joints prior to excavation. This study investigates pre-grouted rock mass to evaluate grout penetration in fractures and transmissivity of water in the rock mass surrounding the built tunnel, with the use for core drilling, OTV, high-precision water injection tests and core logging. The study was performed in three tunnel localities, in tunnels excavated in connection with the Follo Line project in Norway, where pre-grouting was performed using cement-based grouts. It was found less cement than expected in fractures with small apertures, compared with results of grout penetrability in laboratory studies of similar grouts. Further, it was found that fractures in coarse-grained rock types had rougher fracture surfaces and higher hydraulic apertures, than fractures in fine-grained rock types. It was also found that fractures with smoother surfaces had smaller hydraulic apertures in general. Hydraulic jacking was evidenced during the pre-grouting in this area, which is likely to have contributed to unnecessary high grout consumption.

     

基于离散介质流固耦合理论的地下石油洞库水封性和稳定性评价

 以我国首个大型地下水封石油洞库工程为背景,基于离散介质流固耦合理论,开展地下石油洞库水封性和稳定性评价。通过室内岩石三轴试验和结构面剪切–渗流耦合试验,获得岩石的弹性模量、泊松比和结构面的剪切模量、水力开度等参数。根据施工巷道开挖过程中围岩变形和水位变化情况,对围岩参数进行反分析,获得较为可靠的洞库围岩参数。综合上述成果,分析地下石油洞库的水封性和稳定性特征。研究发现,在水幕压力为50 kPa条件下,该地下水封石油洞库稳定水位位于主洞室上方约60 m,且大于洞内储存介质的压力,满足洞库水封条件;洞库各主洞室位移为9～30 mm,达到洞室稳定相关控制标准;分析8#和9#主洞室边墙附近的水平应力、竖向应力、法向应力和切向应力的变化,并将其划分为3个区域,即松动区、扰动区和未扰动区,其中洞室松动区范围约为6 m。研究为大型地下石油洞库水封性和稳定性评价提供理论依据。     

海岛地下水封洞库围岩稳定性及水封可靠性研究

为提高我国的石油储备量及海岛资源利用率,在海岛环境建造地下水封油库成为了一种新的思路。海岛环境相比于内陆具有更好的水力条件,且可作为港口,便于油品运输。以某海岛地下水封油库为依托,基于流固耦合理论,采用有限元数值模拟方法对海岛环境建造地下水封洞库的围岩稳定性和水封可靠性进行研究。结果表明:在海岛环境建造地下水封洞库围岩的应力和位移均较小,可以满足围岩稳定性要求;在不设置水幕系统情况下,开挖地下洞库会在洞库上方形成明显的降落漏斗,部分洞库顶部甚至发生疏干现象,无法满足水封可靠性要求;在设置水幕系统后,地下洞库上方可形成较大厚度的地下水覆盖层,可以满足水封可靠性要求。该成果对在海岛环境下建造地下水封洞库的研究具有借鉴意义。     

天然气盐岩洞室群长期存储能力

对某天然气存储场盐岩洞室群的长期变形进行了三维有限元法流变分析。盐岩洞室周边附近区域内围岩的应力较低,其分布呈现出抽水井附近的水压力特征。当达到设计使用年限(80a)时,该天然气存储场内单一洞室的剩余存储能力保有初始存储能力的29.1%。进一步研究表明,当洞室间距较大时,单一洞室的剩余存储能力较大。间距400m的洞室群中单一洞室的剩余存储能力比间距280m的大5%～10%。     

节理岩体地下洞室稳定性的静动力响应分析

节理岩体地下洞室在地震作用下的安全响应是众多专家学者关注的问题之一,本文针对该问题采用三维离散元法研究节理地下洞室的稳定性,建立了一个含节理组的地下洞室模型进行分析研究。分别对洞室开挖后在常规荷载作用下的响应、洞室开挖后在地震荷载作用下的响应以及开挖支护后在地震荷载作用下的响应等三种工况进行模拟,得出了洞室在三种工况下的应力和位移变化情况。研究表明:地震对洞室的破坏非常大且时间短暂,支护后的洞室围岩能够使破坏时间延迟,在一定时间内增强了洞室围岩的抗震能力。本文的工作不仅对含节理的地下洞室开挖后的围岩变形和支护提供借鉴,而且对地下洞室和隧道的抗震设计具有指导意义。     

水封油库地下水位动态变化特性数值研究

为认识水封石油洞库区地下水位的动态变化过程,以黄岛地下水封石油洞库的基本地质条件为依据,采用饱和非饱和非恒定流数值分析方法,对水封油库在施工期和运行期可能出现工况下的地下水位变化情况进行了全过程数值仿真计算,分析了不同时期洞库区附近岩体的地下水位分布特点及变化过程。研究表明水封油库区内的地下水位变化过程主要受岩体渗透系数、洞库开挖方式和运行方式的影响;当洞库区岩体渗透系数大于 m/s 时,洞顶上方岩体中的地下水将被疏干,必须设置水幕系统来保证洞库的水封效果。     

Design of Pyongtaek LPG storage terminal underneath Lake Namyang: A case study

This paper presents the geo-engineering problems and approaches in the design of the first LPG storage terminal constructed underneath a lake in the western part of Korea. Pyongtaek LPG Storage Terminal was proposed to be constructed underneath Lake Namyang to facilitate the storage caverns within the limited property boundary complicated with complex geological conditions and potential interference with the neighboring storage caverns in operation. In order to precisely characterize the geological features of the bedrock underneath the lake with very limited information from the outcrops, a new method of geophysical investigation was applied. In addition, discreet evaluation of geological data and numerical analyses were carried out to predict the potential hydrogeological interference with the neighboring caverns. As a result, vertical and horizontal water curtain systems were constructed to prevent the detrimental drawdown of water level nearby the neighboring caverns. The depth and geometry of the new cavern were determined based on consideration of the in situ stresses and operation pressure to have as large capacity as possible to overcome the spatial constraints. Continuous monitoring during the construction of the storage caverns and tunnels provides favorable measurements for the final tightness of the storage cavern. In May 1999, the first LPG supply in the cavern was made successfully after the completion of acceptance test.     

大型地下洞室位移量级预测初步探讨

 位移是岩体最容易测量与控制的参数,其量级与速率是隧道工程围岩稳定评判或位移监控的基本参数。但对于大型地下洞室而言,目前尚未建立相应的标准。以我国西南地区已建或开挖完毕的6个水电站大型地下厂房的位移监测成果为基础,总结影响地下厂房围岩位移量级的因素,提炼出主要影响因素,即围岩初始地应力水平和岩体性状,分别用最大主应力 与岩块饱和单轴抗压强度 表征。引入围岩应力强度比 代表2个主要因素,建立其与边墙最大和平均位移量级的2个经验关系式,取得了较好的研究结果,该成果可为地下洞室位移监测设计、预警与监控标准的建立提供参考。最后,对经验公式的适用性与改进途径进行分析。     

盐岩中能源(石油和天然气)地下储存库稳定性评价标准研究

由于盐岩属于一类特殊的岩体，储存库的稳定性分析的评价标准与其他岩体有差别，在各国并没有统一的标准和设计规范，多数是用数值计算的方法来评价储存库的稳定性。主要做法是根据具体的储存库及其岩体力学特性，预先设置储存库稳定性的一些标准，然后对盐岩及其相关的岩石进行大量的试验研究，得到所需要的计算参数，最后通过数值计算来确定储存库的稳定性。系统地提出了盐岩中能源储存库的稳定性研究的内容和评判标准，这些标准归纳起来有3个方面，即：(1)储存库稳定性标准如不允许出现片邦，不允许出现蠕变破坏、安全矿柱和地面沉降控制准则；(2)储存库密封性标准如最大内压控制准则；(3)储存库可使用性标准如储存库体积收敛性。同时给出一个算例，以说明如何评价储存库的稳定性，并说明对储存库稳定性评判标准可以根据具体的情况做必要的修改。     

Design and operation problems related to water curtain system for underground water-sealed oil storage caverns

The underground water-sealed storage technique is critically important and generally accepted for the national energy strategy in China.Although several small underground water-sealed oil storage caverns have been built in China since the 1970 s,there is still a lack of experience for large-volume underground storage in complicated geological conditions.The current design concept of water curtain system and the technical instruction for system operation have limitations in maintaining the stability of surrounding rock mass during the construction of the main storage caverns,as well as the long-term stability.Although several large-scale underground oil storage projects are under construction at present in China,the design concepts and construction methods,especially for the water curtain system,are mainly based on the ideal porosity medium flow theory and the experiences gained from the similar projects overseas.The storage projects currently constructed in China have the specific features such as huge scale,large depth,multiple-level arrangement,high seepage pressure,complicated geological conditions,and high in situ stresses,which are the challenging issues for the stability of the storage caverns.Based on years' experiences obtained from the first large-scale(millions of cubic meters) underground water-sealed oil storage project in China,some design and operation problems related to water curtain system during project construction are discussed.The drawbacks and merits of the water curtain system are also presented.As an example,the conventional concept of "filling joints with water" is widely used in many cases,as a basic concept for the design of the water curtain system,but it is immature.In this paper,the advantages and disadvantages of the conventional concept are pointed out,with respect to the long-term stability as well as the safety of construction of storage caverns.Finally,new concepts and principles for design and construction of the underground water-sealed oil storage caverns are proposed.     

地下水封石油洞库水封准则研究

水封准则是地下水封石油洞库设计与运行管理的基础。为获取工程应用更加简便实用的地下水封石油洞库水封准则,基于裂隙水流动阻力效应的研究,建立了气压推动裂隙水迁移的油汽逃逸模型;根据裂隙水迁移启动的临界条件,推导了铅直裂隙和倾斜裂隙中裂隙水满足油汽封存的临界水封厚度计算公式,讨论了临界水封厚度条件下洞库的原油水封效果。利用气液两相流数值分析成果和工程实际监测成果,论证了提出基于临界水封厚度的地下水封石油洞库水封准则的正确性。     

压气储能地下储气库围岩累积损伤特性数值研究

压气储能电站地下岩穴储气库围岩在循环运行工况下累积损伤效应明显。为研究大规模地下储气库围岩的累积损伤特性,基于损伤理论和FLAC^3D软件平台,二次开发了适用于大规模地下储气库循环加卸载条件下的累积损伤分析程序,并对程序正确性进行了验证。在此基础上,研究了储气库截面型式、洞室埋深和运行下限压力等因素对储气库围岩累积损伤特性的影响。研究表明:①储气库截面型式、洞室埋深和运行下限压力都对储气库围岩变形参数损伤影响较显著,且储气库竖直方向损伤深度都大于水平方向损伤深度;②损伤区内围岩变形参数的损伤程度和损伤变量随着洞室埋深或运行下限压力的增加而减小;③对于相同截面型式的储气库,埋深和运行下限压力不同时,储气库围岩损伤区内同一测点位置的损伤变量或变形参数差值随着循环次数的增加逐渐增大。大规模地下储气库围岩累积损伤特性对全面分析储气库的安全稳定性不可以忽略。