Investigation of Erosion Damages Induced by Wet Steam Containing Micro-Particles

Based on the self-developed experimental apparatus, the wet steam erosion experiments were performed on polished steel specimens. Scanning Electronic Microscope (SEM) and Atomic Force Microscope (AFM) were used to identify the pit characteristics. The experimental results showed that there was little damage on the surface after being impacted by wet steam erosion. However, when the micro-particles were added into the wet steam, not only indentations and scratches but also craters appeared on the eroded surface. Some characteristics of crater, such as the circular shape and intergranular fractures, make the damages distinguish from those of the water-drop or micro-particle impact to solid wall, and they are considered as the results of cavitation erosion.     

Cavitation damages on solid surfaces in suspensions containing spherical and irregular microparticles

Spherical and irregular microparticles both in the size of 5 μm were put into the de-ionized water respectively to form different suspensions, and vibrating cavitation experiments were performed in the two kinds of suspensions. After the experiment, the damages on the specimen surfaces were measured and free radicals in suspensions were detected. It was found that suspensions with particles cause more severe cavitation erosion than those without particles. Compared with a spherical particle, the shape of the irregular particle has little effect on the number of the cavities, but it causes abrasion on the solid surface besides the cavitation erosion.     

冲蚀与空蚀交互磨损三相流场仿真与试验研究

基于计算流体力学方法,数值研究在模拟水轮机工况下,冲蚀与空蚀交互作用时,试件表面上汽液固三相流场的动力学特性(压力场、速度场、汽相体积比分布),然后在转盘式磨损装置上,进行汽液固三相冲蚀与空蚀交互磨损试验,并对试件微观形貌进行分析。结果表明:数值分析得到试件表面最小和最大压力值、气泡速度最大值和汽相比例最大值均出现在空化孔附近,其他位置基本不变,说明空化孔附近交互磨损比单一空蚀磨损严重。就某一空化孔而言,顺着转盘旋转方向的孔边某一夹角展开区域汽相比例较大,并且出现最小和最大压力;从试件微观磨痕分析,其上存在短程犁沟和空蚀孔,磨痕呈现规律性。仿真的气泡轨迹和试件磨痕基本一致,数值计算结果和试验结果吻合得较好,从而证明了数值分析的正确性和合理性。上述数值仿真为揭示流体机械过流部件冲蚀与空蚀交互作用磨损机理奠定了基础。     

磁致伸缩仪超声空化流的三维非定常数值模拟

采用Singhal完全空化模型和SST k-ω湍流模型结合动网格技术对磁致伸缩仪超声空化流进行三维非定常数值模拟。计算结果表明,由于变幅杆高频振动,在靠近试样表面附近局部流场的压力和空泡体积组分变化具有周期性,压力波动的最低值可达到汽化压力,该局部流场可发生空化。由于空化,试样表面压力波动具有脉冲特征。压力和空泡体积组分在试样表面近似呈环形分布。在同一环形区域内,压力和空泡体积组分存在无规律断续脉动。试样表面中心区域空泡经历两次振荡后溃灭,产生强烈脉冲压力,最大脉冲压力可达约14MPa。脉冲压力在试样表面按间隔环形区域分布,且随试样振动在相邻环形区域上交替出现。在磁致伸缩仪超声空化流场中,试件表面可近似多个声波发生源,各声波传播时相互叠加和干扰。在声波传播的过程中压力衰减很快,只是在距试样表面约20mm内,压力有明显波动。     

STUDY ON THE INFLUENCES OF BUBBLY OIL ON THE CAVITATION EROSION IN JOURNAL BEARINGS OF ENGINES

0 INTRODUCTIONWhen water, minera1 oil or any other kind offluid flow over a element surface, such as propeller,pump, valve, pipe, bearing, gears, injector, etc, becauseof a change of flow rate or a change of localgeometrical figuration, the local pressure will decreaserapid1y. If the local pressure becomes lower than thesaturation pre8sure of this kind of fluid, the dissolvedgases will come out of solution as bubbles. Besides, ifthe local pressure is below the vaPOr pressure of thisfluid,…     

Scaling study of cavitation pitting from cavitating jets and ultrasonic horns

Cavitation erosion prediction and characterization of cavitation field strength are of interest to industries suffering from cavitation erosion detrimental effects. One means to evaluate cavitation fields and materials is to examine pitting rates during the incubation period, where the test sample undergoes localized permanent deformations shaped as individual pits. In this study, samples from three metallic materials, an Aluminum alloy (Al 7075), a Nickel Aluminum Bronze (NAB) and a Duplex Stainless Steel (SS A2205) were subjected to a vast range of cavitation intensities generated by cavitating jets at different driving pressures and by an ultrasonic horn. The resulting pitted sample surfaces were examined and characterized with a non-contact 3D optical scanner and the resulting damage computer-analyzed. A statistical analysis of the pit population and its characteristics was then carried out. It was found that the various cavitation field strengths can be correlated to the measured pit distributions and that two characteristic quantities: a characteristic number of pits per unit surface area and unit time, and a characteristic pit diameter or a characteristic pit depth can be attributed to a given “cavitation intensity level”. This characterization concept can be used in the future to study the cavitation intensity of the full scale and to develop methods of full scale predictions based on model scale erosion data.     

Comparison of erosion mechanisms in different types of cavitation

A new cavitation erosion device producing vortex cavitation has been extensively used. A comparative study between various cavitation erosion situations was carried out to verify the ability of this vortex cavitation generator to produce realistic cavitation erosion with respect to that observed in hydraulic machinery.For this purpose, specimens of indium and α + β brass were subjected to different cavitation erosion situations in a Francis turbine model, a cavitation water tunnel, a vibratory cavitation device and our vortex cavitation generator. The surface deformation and the development of damage in exposed specimens were examined using scanning electron microscopy. In all cases, except for the vibratory cavitation device, the damage starts with the formation of isolated hollows and craters of similar morphologies and sizes, produced by collapse impingements. The accumulation of isolated damage distributed statistically over the specimens results in erosion. Meanwhile, for vibratory cavitation the damage is initially scattered uniformly over the specimen surface and develops progressively. In spite of this, the topographies of severely eroded surfaces in various types of cavitation did not present noticeable differences. However, transmission electron microscopy observations of subsurface microstructures in eroded specimens indicate the same arrangements of dislocations and the appearance of largescale deformation twins. Hardened superficial layers in specimens exposed to flow cavitation are thicker than those in vibratory cavitation, which leads to higher erosion rates.     

Investigation of cavitation erosion using X-ray residual stress analysis

In this paper it will be shown that by X-ray residual stress analysis it is possible to obtain information on the cavitation process after only short cavitation times. To clarify the correlation between cavitation erosion and changes in residual stress, samples of various steels were tested in a flow cavitation device. The residual stress measurements showed that cavitation leads to the development of compressive residual stresses in the surface of the samples. The rate at which these residual stresses develop depends on the intensity of cavitation. Cavitation-induced changes in residual stress may also be observed in samples with pre-existing residual stresses due to handling, e. g. mechanical working, heat treatment etc. After very short cavitation times the local variation in cavitation intensity may be very clearly seen in the residual stress distribution in the surface. After a longer period of cavitation, compressive residual stresses reach a limiting value which is not exceeded even at points of highest cavitation intensity.     

Effect of liquid metal composition and hydrodynamic parameters on cavitation erosion

Cavitation erosion testing machine for low-temperature melting alloy liquid was developed by using a vibratory apparatus. The erosion tests of SUS304 were carried out in three kinds of lead–bismuth and deionized water. We defined a relative temperature as the percentage between freezing and boiling points. At relative temperature at 14 °C, the erosion rate is 10–12 times in various lead–bismuth alloys, and 2–5 times in sodium, as compared with that in deionized water. When SUS304 was exposed to a cavitation in PbBi, the surface was work hardened 20% harder compared with original surface. In deionized water, SUS304 was work hardened by 5%. Therefore, we can conclude that larger collapse pressure can be estimated to act on the specimen surface in lead–bismuth, as compared with that in water.We discussed the effect of hydrodynamic properties on cavitation erosion in a flowing system. It is considered that the erosion rate in sodium is in proportion to 1st to 6th power of flow velocity similarly to that in mercury. The incipient cavitation number is approximately unity irrespective of test liquids. Furthermore, the relation between MDER and cavitation number is expressed as power low of function with an exponent of 2.5.     

A study of cavitation bubble collapse pressures and erosion part 3: the results in a venturi facility

Cavitation erosion generated in a venturi facility was studied by comparing the erosion loss with the distributions of cavitation bubble collapse pressures (impact loads). The erosion process in the venturi tests is similar to that in the vibratory tests, although its progression is very slow. That is, the surface first deforms and fractures as a result of fatigue with repeated bubble collapse pressures below the threshold pressure needed to form a pit impulsively. By comparing the distributions of impact loads measured using our method with the hypothetical stress-number of cycles curves for fatigue, it is found that the incubation period and the volume loss rate during the stable period follow Miner's law regardless of the venturi, vibratory and cavitation conditions and materials. Therefore we found that we are able to estimate cavitation damage in a flowing system in the same way as damage in the vibratory tests from Miner's law although the distributions of cavitation bubble collapse pressures are markedly different.     

加工方法和材料种类对空蚀结果的影响

利用旋转圆盘空蚀试验装置,以流动的自来水为介质,对铣削和抛光加工的1Cr18Ni9Ti、40Cr、45#钢3种钢材料,进行了累计5min、20min和1h的空蚀试验,利用扫描电子显微镜对试验后试样的表面形貌进行原位观察。结果表明同种材料,铣削和抛光的试样蚀坑形态不同;同种加工方法,1Cr18Ni9Ti最难发生空蚀,40Cr的空蚀现象明显,45#钢发生了严重的空蚀破坏。结果显示不同加工方法影响了试样表面微形貌和显微组织,从而得到形态不同的空蚀坑;材料种类对空蚀破坏程度有显著影响,硬度和润湿性可能是重要影响因素。     

Analysis of Fretting Fatigue of Cavitation Shotless Peened Ti–6Al–4V

Fretting fatigue behavior of cavitation shotless peened titanium alloy, Ti–6Al–4V coupons was investigated using finite element method and a critical plane-based multi-axial fatigue parameter. Cavitation shotless peening (CSP)-induced compressive residual stress, which was larger at the contact surface than its counterpart from the shot peening (SP). However, compressive residual stress decreased more sharply with distance from the contact surface in CSP than in SP. Analysis using a critical plane-based multi-axial fatigue parameter demonstrated that the crack initiation would occur inside the cavitation shotless peened specimen which matched with the experimental observations. On the other hand, crack initiation would occur on the contact surface in the shot peened specimen which again was in agreement with experiments. The analysis also showed that the crack propagation part of the total fretting fatigue life was longer in the shot peened specimen than in the cavitation shotless peened specimen while the crack initiation part was almost equal from both peening methods. Therefore, CSP could not improve the fretting fatigue life/strength as much as the SP did but it improved relative to the un-peened specimen.     

Cavitation erosion of aluminum matrix sintered composite with AlN dispersoids

The cavitation erosion resistance of P/M aluminum alloy-sintered composite with AlN dispersoids, prepared via the in situ synthesis and the conventional premixing process, was evaluated by using magnetostrictive-vibration type equipment. In situ synthesized AlN particles were effective for the improvement of the erosion resistance of the composite because of their good bonding with the aluminum matrix. The additive AlN by the premixing process were easily detached from the specimen surface due to the insufficient coherence with the matrix, and caused the poor resistance. The cavitation resistance also depended on the porosity of the sintered composite. The continuously opened pores accelerated the wear phenomena by the cavitation due to the high-pressure attack on the primary particle boundaries of sintered materials in the collapse of the bubbles.     

冲击形式产生的冲蚀、空蚀和腐蚀联合磨损试验研究

舰船等海洋运输装备在海水中行驶时,船体表面受到含沙海水的冲蚀磨损,舰船行驶速度变化引起的空蚀磨损,以及海水的腐蚀磨损,因此舰船表面材料的破坏形式是冲击式的冲蚀、空蚀和腐蚀联合磨损。为了研究联合磨损的影响因素,研制冲蚀、空蚀和腐蚀联合磨损试验台,并实验研究沙粒浓度、沙粒尺寸、含盐浓度以及冲蚀速度对45钢试件的联合磨损影响规律。实验结果表明:冲蚀、空蚀和腐蚀联合磨损程度强于冲蚀和空蚀交互磨损或单纯腐蚀磨损,在较低的沙粒浓度和较低的含盐浓度条件下,金属材料联合磨损质量损失与沙粒浓度、沙粒尺寸、含盐浓度和冲蚀速度均成正比关系。磨损面形貌分析表明:随着沙粒浓度、沙粒尺寸、含盐浓度、冲蚀速度的增加,试件表面的冲蚀沟和空蚀孔的磨痕深度和面积增大,而在人造海水中,试件表面不仅存在冲蚀沟和空蚀孔,还产生了腐蚀坑。     

MICRO-COURSE OF CAVITATION EROSION

By cavitation tests and scanning electron microscope （SEM） microanalysis, the micro-appearance of cavitation samples is studied. It is the first time that the micro-appearance of metals is pursued successfully. According to the changing course of the micro-appearance of metals, the damaging course of cavitation erosion is determined. The destructive way of collapsing bubbles on the metal surface is known. Firstly cavitation pinholes appear on the metal surface, then cracks generate and grow under the action of collapsing bubbles. When cracks connect each other, small pieces are removed from pinhole wall and pinholes develop into cavitation pits. When the previous surface is removed completely, new pinholes are produced again on the new surface. A pinhole is the result of the powerful striking of a micro-liquid jet ejected by a large collapsed bubble near the surface. At some stages, cracks grow in the way of fatigue. The corrosion phenomenon is observed during the cavitation erosion. The cavitation pattern can be used to explain the cavitation pregnancy and the changing regulation of sample surface.     

Resistance to wear and cavitation erosion of bearing alloys

Sliding wear and vibratory cavitation erosion tests in paraffin oil were carried out on bearing alloys, i.e. tin-based and lead-based white metals, Cu-Pb alloy and leaded bronze. In lubricated wear under mild conditions the surface is worn smooth and a slight difference exists between the wear resistances of the four alloys. In cavitation erosion an eroded surface which is much rougher than the worn surface is formed. Cavitation erosion is affected strongly by the composition and crystal structure of the alloy and thus the erosion resistances of the four alloys differ greatly, the ranking of resistance being lead-based white metal < Cu-Pb alloy < tin-based white metal < leaded bronze. The surface damage, which is caused by the joint action of cavitation erosion and wear, was also investigated by rubbing the eroded surfaces which had been exposed to cavitation erosion for various times. This damage becomes larger with increasing cavitation damage. The resistance to this damage differs much more in the four alloys tested and tends to correlate with the results of the erosion tests rather than those of the wear tests. Therefore, it is clear that the cavitation erosion resistance should be considered in the selection of bearing materials.     

Damage detection of concrete piles subject to typical damage types based on stress wave measurement using embedded smart aggregates transducers

Concrete piles are the most common types of foundation structures. Pile damages, such as fractures, cracks, mud intrusion and secondary concrete pouring, are the leading causes of pile structural failure, which may directly result in casualties and economic loss. It is desirable to develop a monitoring system that can detect these pile damages. In this paper, embedded piezoceramic-based smart aggregates transducers along with the active sensing approach are developed to detect common types of pile damages, including crack, partial mud intrusion, secondary pouring, and full mud intrusion, based stress wave measurement. With the active sensing approach, one smart aggregate is used as an actuator to generate a stress wave that will propagate along the pile, and other smart aggregate(s) will measure the propagating wave. All damages, which introduce new interfaces and discontinuities, attenuate the stress wave propagation. The attenuations of the stress waves based on different pile damages were compared by the received sensor signal in time domain. A wavelet packet-based energy analysis was used to develop an energy index to assist the detection of damages. Experimental results demonstrated the feasibility that the proposed approach can detect all four types of common damages associated with concrete piles.     

Cavitation erosion characteristics of poly(methyl methacrylate) in a rotating disk device

Experimental results pertaining to the initiation, dynamics and mechanism of cavitation erosion on poly(methyl methacrylate) specimens tested in a rotating disk device are described in detail. Erosion normally starts at the location nearest to the center of rotation (CR). As the exposure time to cavitation increases, additional erosion areas or sites appear away from the CR and secondary erosion (induced by eroded pits) spreads upstream and merges with the main pit. The microcracks increase in density towards the end of the incubation period and transform into macrocracks in most cases. A study of light optical photographs and scanning electron micrographs of the eroded area shows that material particles are removed from the network of cracks because of crack joining and pits indicate particle debris. Optical degradation (loss of transmittance) is observed to be greater on the back of the specimen than on the front.     

Experimental and numerical investigations on development of cavitation erosion pits on solid surface

Polished, grinded, and milled samples made of 40Cr stainless steel were prepared for the cavitation erosion experiment. A typical phenomenon of “pits chain”, which consisted of two contact pits and a smaller pit on the ridge between them, was found on the sample surfaces after 15-minute experiment. Numerical simulation indicated that the pressure fluctuation caused by the sequentially formed pits on the solid surface was the main reason for the formation of the “pits chain”. It proves that the early-formed pits affect the formation of the subsequent erosion pits, and the whole cavitation erosion process is not a probability event. Based on the numerical analyses, the development of erosion is divided into four stages, which describe how a pit develops vertically and horizontally under the effect of the pressure perturbation. The development was validated by the characteristics of the damaged surface observed at different experimental time.     

Cavitation erosion in silicon nitride: Experimental investigations on the mechanism of material degradation

Test samples from three silicon nitride materials used for potential rolling element bearing applications were experimentally studied at different conditions to understand their mechanisms of cavitation erosion. High and low powered ultrasonic vibratory systems were adapted for this study. Variation in the properties and microstructure of test materials helped to identify the mechanisms of wear and the factors that provide resistance to cavitation. Multiple intergranular and transgranular fractures were noted as the initial stages of erosion. Dislodging of grains from the surface led to the formation of small scale pits, resulting in a rough surface, forming a favourable condition for bubble nucleation, which accelerated the damage, eventually dislodging more grains with noticeable pit proliferation and coalescence. Erosion formed a centre wear scar surrounded by pits due to the variation in fluid film thickness. Detailed surface analysis on eroded samples revealed the influence of microstructure on damage initiation and progression. Erosion rate decelerated and remained at a low level of material removal as wear pits grew deeper, creating a bubble cushioning effect.