考虑温室效应的氯盐环境下RC桥梁锈胀开裂性能预测

使用大气气候变化数据,改进了氯离子作用下腐蚀开始时间模型和腐蚀电流密度模型,分析了全球变暖(CO₂浓度和温度)对RC桥梁在氯离子腐蚀作用下的锈胀开裂性能影响。考虑腐蚀影响的性能预测参数如气候变化、氯离子浓度、氯离子扩散过程、温度、湿度、结构尺寸参数、钢筋位置和性能退化机制等具有随机性和时变性,发展了基于时变可靠度理论的预测方法来预测RC桥梁在将来全球变暖作用下以及氯盐环境下将来服役100年内的开始腐蚀风险和平均锈胀开裂概率。研究发现:1) 在预测氯离子腐蚀效应时,大气气候变化温室效应能够恶化混凝土腐蚀损伤效应,在预测时需要计入其效应;2) 在浪溅区环境下的开始腐蚀概率和锈胀开裂比例比海岸线大气区环境下分别高了127%和140%,当结构位于距离海岸线1km以上区域时锈胀开裂比例降低到1%;3) 对于保护层厚度为20mm和水灰比为0.55的混凝土,在将来100年内的开裂概率为0.893,这意味着大多数混凝土结构在服役期存在腐蚀损伤现象,将来需要大量的维修和维护工作。这些信息能够为决策人员应对温室效应和氯离子腐蚀对土木工程的影响做出应对措施提供支持。     

A global model for corrosion-induced cracking in prestressed concrete structures

A global model is proposed in this study to predict prestressed concrete (PC) cracking induced by strand corrosion. The proposed model considers the three stages: micro-crack formations, cover cracking initiation, and crack width growth. The prestress and geometric properties of the strand have been incorporated into the prediction. Six PC beams were designed and accelerated toward corrosion-induced cracking. Observing the strands supported visual evidence of pitting corrosion and crevice corrosion. The effects of corrosion-induced crack on the failure of beams are analyzed. The proposed model is verified by the experimental results and this work presents the effects of parameters on corrosion-induced cracking. The results show that prestress has an adverse effect on corrosion-induced cracking. Prestress leads to a decrease in the critical corrosion loss at the three stages. This decrement becomes more noticeable with increasing cover and decreasing concrete tensile strength, but shows no remarkable changes with an increasing strand diameter and rust expansion ratio.     

预应力钢绞线锈胀及混凝土开裂预测

针对钢绞线锈蚀导致混凝土开裂现象,开展了不同应力状态下混凝土的锈胀开裂试验,基于红外和热重分析研究了预应力钢绞线锈蚀产物的膨胀率,分析了预应力对保护层临界开裂时间和裂缝宽度的影响,综合考虑预应力、铁锈膨胀率和混凝土开裂损伤等因素,建立了开裂初始和发展全过程的锈胀裂缝预测模型,并通过试验结果进行了验证。结果表明:预应力会加速混凝土的锈胀开裂,在钢绞线抗拉强度75%的预应力水平下,保护层初始开裂时间降低了22%,裂缝扩展速率增加了9%;建立的模型具有较好的精度,可以合理地预测预应力混凝土的锈胀开裂。     

锈胀开裂钢筋混凝土粘结疲劳性能试验研究

重复加载和锈胀开裂均会导致钢筋混凝土粘结性能退化,进而对钢筋混凝土构件力学性能产生不利影响。该文开展了一系列偏心拔出试验,研究了重复加载以及锈胀开裂对粘结滑移性能的耦合影响规律。主要研究变量包括重复加载次数、应力水平以及钢筋锈蚀程度。结果表明:重复加载对非锈蚀试件和锈胀开裂试件粘结强度及峰值滑移没有显著影响,但会导致钢筋和混凝土之间不断累积残余滑移。重复加载后,粘结应力-滑移曲线形态特征与单调加载试件相似。该文还发现表面锈胀裂缝宽度对粘结强度、峰值滑移以及残余滑移的增长规律有明显影响。锈胀开裂会导致钢筋混凝土试件粘结疲劳寿命显著下降。基于试验数据及文献中研究结论,该文建立了重复及单调荷载作用下非锈蚀及锈胀开裂试件的局部粘结应力-滑移本构关系模型,推导得到了粘结疲劳寿命预测模型。     

锈胀钢筋混凝土拱肋承载力试验与模拟

为研究锈胀损伤对钢筋混凝土拱肋极限承载力的影响,制作了4片钢筋混凝土圆弧拱肋,通过电化学快速锈蚀使其表面产生不同程度的锈胀裂缝,讨论了初始锈胀裂缝的分布情况,研究了锈胀拱肋的裂缝发展、不同位置处位移和应变、极限承载力及失效模式。试验结果表明:锈胀削弱了混凝土截面尺寸和刚度,降低了钢筋与混凝土间的粘结性,是承载力退化的主要原因之一;锈胀导致的拱肋极限承载力下降率约为60%;锈胀未改变拱肋的失效模式,所有拱肋均在一侧拱脚发生脆性破坏。在试验的基础上,建立了锈胀钢筋混凝土拱肋的有限元计算模型,由于RC拱肋存在大面积锈胀,模型中未考虑混凝土保护层的影响,计算结果和试验值较为接近,为日后有限元建模提供一定参考。     

Towards incorporating the influence of cover cracking on steel corrosion in RC design codes: the concept of performance-based crack width limits

This paper advocates for the adoption of performance-based limiting crack widths with respect to steel corrosion in reinforced concrete structures. The authors argue that, from both durability and sustainability viewpoints, the practice of adopting a universal limiting crack width for a wide range of in-service exposure conditions and concrete cover conditions and quality is not valid. As new performance-based concrete design codes are being developed and/or improved, the influence of cover cracking on steel corrosion needs to be incorporated in these codes. An experimental set-up was designed to investigate the influence of cover cracking, cover depth and concrete quality on chloride-induced corrosion. Beam specimens (120?×?130?×?375?mm) were cast using five concretes made using two w/b ratios (0.40 and 0.55) and three binders (100?% CEM I 42.5?N (PC), 50/50 PC/GGBS and 70/30 PC/FA). Other variables in the experiments included cover depth (20 and 40?mm), crack width (0, 0.4 and 0.7?mm). A total of 105 beam specimens were cast and exposed to cyclic 3-days wetting (with 5?% NaCl solution) and 4-days air-drying in the laboratory (23?°C, 50?% relative humidity). Corrosion rate was monitored bi-weekly in the specimens. The results relevant to this paper are presented and discussed. For a given concrete quality and cover depth, corrosion rate increased with increasing crack width. If crack width and cover depth are kept constant, corrosion rate increases with decreasing concrete quality, and vice versa. A model framework that can be used to objectively select cover depth, concrete quality and crack width is proposed. Such a model can be improved into, for example, a nomograph and used in the design process for RC structures prone to corrosion. Performance-based crack width limits should be adopted in the design of RC structures prone to steel corrosion. These crack width limits should be dependent on a complex interaction of, inter alia, concrete quality, cover depth, crack characteristics and prevailing exposure conditions. This study showed the inter-relationship between crack width, cover depth and concrete quality in affecting chloride-induced corrosion rate. Accurate corrosion rate prediction models incorporating the influence of cover cracking on corrosion are a pre-requisite to implementing the influence of cover cracking in future concrete design codes.     

Influence of long-term chloride diffusion in concrete and the resulting corrosion of reinforcement on the serviceability of RC beams

This paper presents the chloride penetration and the effect of chloride ingress on the serviceability of reinforced concrete (RC) beams. A series of experimental studies were carried out on beams with various corroded ages up to 28 years. The chloride content in different locations were tested during various periods. Different states influencing the serviceability of the corroded beams were investigated, including the maximum width of the corrosion-induced cracks of the concrete cover, the mid-span deflection of the beams under the service load and their load-bearing capacity. Based on the results available from this programme, the service life of corroded beams was predicted by the corrosion process of the reinforcement. The results showed that the chloride corrosion could significantly deteriorate the serviceability of the beams. The current criteria concerning the chloride content at the level of the reinforcement of the concrete beams and the maximum width of the corrosion-induced cracks appear to be very conservative.     

Impact of crack width on bond: confined and unconfined rebar

This paper reports the results of a research project comparing the effect of surface crack width and degree of corrosion on the bond strength of confined and unconfined deformed 12 and 16 mm mild steel reinforcing bars. The corrosion was induced by chloride contamination of the concrete and an applied DC current. The principal parameters investigated were confinement of the reinforcement, the cover depth, bar diameter, degree of corrosion and the surface crack width. The results indicated that potential relationship between the crack width and the bond strength. The results also showed an increase in bond strength at the point where initial surface cracking was observed for bars with confining stirrups. No such increase was observed with unconfined specimens.     

Crack profile in RC,R/FRCC and R/HPFRCC members in tension

The theoretical approaches used for the evaluation of crack width in reinforced concrete (RC) structures, are generally based on the hypothesis of parallel crack surfaces. In this way, crack width measured on the concrete cover should be equal to that on the bar surface. The results of several experimental analyses, developed during the past years in many Research Institutes, do not justify this assumption. On the contrary, even in RC members under tensile actions, crack width appears wider on external surface than on rebar–concrete interface. To better define the effective crack profile of RC structures, a new model, able to analyze the whole structural response of RC ties, is here presented. In the proposed approach, all the physical phenomena involved in the cracking process are taken into account: the bond-slip behavior between steel rebar and tensile concrete, the nonlinear fracture mechanics of concrete in tension, and the mechanism of aggregate interlock. Crack profiles computed with this model seem to be in accordance with those experimentally measured in RC elements in tension. A good agreement between numerical results and experimental data is also found both in case of steel rebar and ordinary fiber reinforced cementitious composites (R/FRCC), and in case of steel rebar and high?performance fiber reinforced cementitious composites (R/HPFRCC).     

Calibration of reliability index of RC beams for serviceability limit state of maximum crack width

This paper discusses the calibration of reliability index of RC beams in buildings for serviceability limit state of maximum crack width. Based on a group of tests on RC beams for maximum crack width, model uncertainty in complicated expressions for the limit state stipulated by China code for design of concrete structures for concrete beams was estimated. Formulations of the first-order reliability method for evaluating the reliability indexes for this limit state were developed. Sensitivities of the reliability index to the ratio of variable load to permanent load, ratio of reinforcement, section depth, radius of longitudinal reinforcing steel, nominal cover, concrete cube strength, and allowable width limit were discussed.     

锈蚀变形钢筋与混凝土粘结应力模型研究

研究了锈蚀对钢筋混凝土无箍筋试件粘结强度的影响,建立了锈蚀导致保护层胀裂前变形钢筋极限粘结应力的理论计算模型,定量地揭示了该阶段粘结强度增强的机理。通过对钢筋肋间混凝土在挤压力、摩擦力及锈胀力作用下的受力分析,从理论上推导了锈蚀钢筋混凝土发生劈裂破坏时的粘结应力计算表达式;给出了摩擦系数等未知参数的取值大小;详细阐述了表达式的求解思路。利用已发表文献的多个试验结果对理论模型进行验证,结果表明计算值与试验值吻合良好。     

酸雨环境下腐蚀RC剪力墙抗震性能试验研究

为研究酸雨环境中RC剪力墙的抗震性能,设计了6榀剪跨比为2.14的RC剪力墙试件,采用人工气候环境模拟技术对其进行酸雨环境加速腐蚀试验,进而进行拟静力试验,分析轴压比和腐蚀程度对RC剪力墙抗震性能的影响。结果表明:在酸雨溶液中的H+和SO₄2+共同侵蚀作用下,试件表面出现析出晶体、侵蚀孔洞、骨料外露等现象,且随酸雨侵蚀循环次数增加腐蚀现象不断加重;随腐蚀程度增加,墙底水平裂缝出现时间提前且裂缝之间间距增加,裂缝宽度变宽,试件承载能力、变形能力和耗能能力均有不同程度的退化,峰值点剪切变形及其占总变形比例减小;随轴压比增加,墙体开裂、屈服和峰值荷载增大,裂缝发展速度减慢,但各试件的变形能力和耗能能力不断降低,峰值点剪切变形及其占总变形比例减小。     

Experimental and nonlinear finite element studies of RC beams strengthened with FRP plates

This paper presents a joint experimental–analytical investigation aimed at studying the brittle failure modes of RC members strengthened in flexure by FRP plates. Both midspan and plate end failure modes are studied. The finite element analyses are based on nonlinear fracture mechanics. The model considered the actual crack pattern observed in the tests by using a smeared and an interface crack model. This paper shows how concrete cracking, adhesive behavior, plate length, width and stiffness affect the failure mechanisms. The numerical and experimental results show that debonding and concrete cover splitting failure modes occur always by crack propagation inside the concrete.     

A review on durability properties of strain hardening fibre reinforced cementitious composites (SHFRCC)

This paper reviews and presents various durability properties of strain hardening fibre reinforced cementitious composites (SHFRCC). Published research results show that, due to its tight crack width properties compared to ordinary concrete and ordinary fibre reinforced concrete, SHFRCC significantly resists the migration of aggressive substances in to the concrete and improves the durability of reinforced concrete (RC). It is also reported that, due to the strain hardening and multiple cracking behaviours, SHFRCC meets the tight crack width limits for durability of RC structures proposed by different design codes. Based on the reviewed durability properties it is argued that SHFRCC materials can be used in selected locations of RC structural members to improve their overall durability performances.     

Water repellent surface impregnation for extension of service life of reinforced concrete structures in marine environments: The role of cracks

The enhancement of long-term durability of marine structures is a matter of interest to many researchers. The study presented in this paper examines the effectiveness of a water reducer and chloride barrier surface impregnation of the concrete cover of reinforced concrete (RC) structures, exposed to a marine environment. Specific focuses is on how surface cracks created (1) before impregnation and (2) after impregnation, affect the effectiveness of the surface treatment. The experiments are conducted in an environment which is as close as possible to the real humid subtropical marine environment.A series of reinforced concrete (RC) prisms and concrete cylinders, each treated with various commercial surface impregnation agents, were exposed to cyclic sea water shower under an outdoor environment to accelerate the dry/wet cycles for 1 year. Six types of surface impregnation agents, including four types of silane-based water repellent agents and two types of sodium silicate-based pore blockers (water–glass) were applied. Three types of RC prisms were prepared to simulate the different cracking possibilities, which may occur in surface impregnated concrete structures, during their service life. No cracks were introduced in the first prism group, while cracks were introduced before and after surface impregnation, in the second and third groups, respectively. The time-dependent water absorption of all specimens was monitored during exposure to the dry/wet cycles. Finally the specimens were split open to measure the penetration depths of the surface impregnation agents and the chloride penetration profiles. The areas with corrosion evident in the steel reinforcement in the RC prisms were also measured.Sodium silicate-based pore blockers were found to be inefficient in preventing chloride penetration of concrete under simulated marine exposures. The long-term efficiency of water repellent agents used for surface impregnation was found to be highly dependent on the type of agent and whether impregnation was carried out before or after crack formation.     

Investigation on the cracking behavior of concrete cover induced by corner located rebar corrosion

Non-uniform corrosion of reinforcement causes concrete cracking in chloride contaminated RC structures. Due to the special boundary conditions, the concrete cover with corner located rebar is often subjected to the attack of chloride ions in a marine environment from two directions, and thus the corresponding non-uniform corrosion distribution should be different from the one for side-located rebar. The aim of the work is to explore the effect of corner located rebar corrosion on the cracking of cover concrete. For corner located rebar, an improved non-uniform corrosion distribution model was established based on the analysis results of two-dimensional chloride diffusion in concrete. Considering the heterogeneities of concrete, a meso-scale mechanical model and method for the study on the failure behavior of concrete cover was built. In the analysis model and method, the non-uniform radial displacement distribution was adopted to simulate the corrosion expansion behavior of the rebar. The cracking of concrete cover with corner located rebar was simulated and studied. The present approach was verified by the available experimental observations. The influences of concrete heterogeneity, corrosion distribution types, rebar diameter and concrete cover thickness on the failure patterns of concrete cover and the expansive pressure were investigated. The simulation results indicate that the developed approach can well describe the cracking behavior of cover concrete and the corrosion-expansion behavior of steel rebar.     

Design provisions for crack spacing and width in RC elements externally bonded with FRP

Verification of serviceability is a key issue in reinforced concrete (RC) elements; for RC elements externally bonded with fibre reinforced plastic (FRP) laminates and sheets cracking phenomena are usually verified by adopting the same approach used for steel RC elements. The available code provisions for crack width and spacing in steel RC elements are reviewed in this paper in order to ascertain the reliability of their application to RC elements strengthened with FRP sheets. Experimental results belonging to test programmes performed by the authors and other researchers on RC elements externally bonded with FRP were compared with existing code provisions in terms of crack width and spacing.A new formula for crack spacing, calibrated on the experimental results, is proposed for use in the expression given by the published version of EC2 for calculating crack width in RC elements externally bonded with FRP.     

Cover cracking as a function of bar corrosion: Part I-Experimental test

The appraisal of concrete structures suffering rebar corrosion is one of the most urgent needs regarding the selection of the technical and economical optimum time for repair. Up to now this appraisal has been mainly based on empirical and subjective considerations. Among the different distressing consequences of rebar corrosion the best known is the cracking of concrete cover. However, very few data have been reported in the literature on the amount of corrosion needed to induce this cracking. In the present paper, some preliminary experiments are reported in which small reinforced beams are artificially corroded by an impressed current, and the amount of current (and loss of bar cross-section) needed to induce the crack at the surface are monitored, together with the evolution of crack width, by the use of strain gauges applied to the surface of the specimens. In a companion paper, a numerical model to relate the decrease in rebar cross-section to the cover cracking will be developed. That model is based on the orderly imposition of corrosion to finite elements of the rebar by a fictitious temperature increment that produces analogous effects, while concrete cracking is introduced by a standard smeared-crack model. The experimental results indicate that only a few micrometres of loss in rebar cross-section are needed to induce visible cover cracks (0.1 mm width) in the conditions of the test.     

Concrete cover cracking due to uniform reinforcement corrosion

Service life design (SLD) is an important tool for civil engineers to ensure that the structural integrity and functionality of the structure is not compromised within a given time frame, i.e. the service life. In SLD of reinforced concrete structures, reinforcement corrosion is of major concern and reinforcement de-passivation is a frequently used limit state. The present paper investigates an alternative limit state: corrosion-induced cover cracking. Results from numerical simulations of concrete cover cracking due to reinforcement corrosion are presented. The potential additional service life is calculated using literature data on corrosion rate and Faraday’s law. The parameters varied comprise reinforcement diameter, concrete cover thickness and concrete material properties, viz. concrete tensile strength and ductility (plain concrete and fibre reinforced concrete). Results obtained from the numerical simulations reveal that, depending on the serviceability limit state applied, the service life of a reinforced concrete structure can be increased significantly by allowing minor damage of the cover.     

A model for prediction of time from corrosion initiation to corrosion cracking

Prediction of time to corrosion cracking is a key element in evaluating the service life of corroded reinforced concrete (RC) structures. This paper presents a mathematical model that predicts the time from corrosion initiation to corrosion cracking. In the present model a relationship between the steel mass loss and the internal radial pressure caused by the expansion of corrosion products is developed. The concrete around a corroding steel reinforcing bar is modeled as a thick-walled cylinder with a wall thickness equal to the thinnest concrete cover. The concrete ring is assumed to crack when the tensile stresses in the circumferential direction at every part of the ring have reached the tensile strength of concrete. The internal radial pressure at cracking is then determined and related to the steel mass loss. Faraday’s law is then utilized to predict the time from corrosion initiation to corrosion cracking. The model accounts for the time required for corrosion products to fill a porous zone before they start inducing expansive pressure on the concrete surrounding the steel reinforcing bar. The accuracy of the model is demonstrated by comparing the model’s predictions with experimental data published in the literature.