Mood as a moderator of acceptance of interpersonal feedback.

Two studies demonstrated that feedback is likely to be accepted when its affective tone matches an individual's mood state. In Study 1, Ss in an induced positive mood were more likely to change self-ratings in the direction of positive feedback, whereas Ss in an induced negative mood were more likely to change self-ratings in the direction of negative feedback. In Study 2, after a neutral mood induction, nondepressed Ss were more likely to change self-ratings in the direction of positive feedback, whereas depressed Ss were more likely to change self-ratings in the direction of negative feedback. After a positive mood induction, both nondepressed and depressed Ss were more likely to change self-ratings in the direction of positive feedback. These results suggest that motivations for self-enhancement or self-consistency do not generally underlie acceptance of feedback. Instead, a model of accessibility of information in memory is proposed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Self-esteem, mood, and self-evaluation: Changes in mood and the way you see you.

Three studies found that self-esteem moderates the relation between mood and self-evaluation. In Study 1, a standard mood-induction procedure was used to induce positive, negative, or neutral moods in low self-esteem (LSE) Ss and high self-esteem Ss. Afterward, Ss evaluated their specific qualities and characteristics (e.g., How smart are you? How kind are you?). Both self-esteem groups evaluated themselves favorably in a positive mood, but LSE Ss were more apt to lower their self-evaluations in a negative mood. Study 2 found a similar, though weaker, pattern using a noncognitive, musical mood induction; Study 3 found that these effects occur with variations in naturally occurring mood over a 6-wk period. The authors suggest that the tendency for LSE people to respond to negative mood with self-depreciation contributes to psychological distress. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Responses to depressed individuals: Discrepancies between self-report and observer-rated behavior.

Examined the behavior, mood, and perceptions of 40 nondepressed female undergraduates (Ss) interacting with 20 depressed and 20 nondepressed female undergraduates (targets). Ss tried to get to know the targets and then completed questionnaires including the Multiple Affect Adjective Check List. Following the interaction, Ss who spoke with depressed targets did not differ from Ss who interacted with nondepressed targets with respect to either self-reported mood or willingness to engage in further contact with their partners. However, Ss who interacted with depressed targets smiled less often, demonstrated less arousal and pleasantness in their facial expressions, exhibited less positive and more negative content in their conversations, and made fewer statements of direct support to the targets. Depressed targets offered fewer statements of direct support to their partners and talked about more negative content in their interactions. (26 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Self-discrepancies and emotional vulnerability: How magnitude, accessibility, and type of discrepancy influence affect.

Two studies with 129 undergraduates examined whether the type of emotional change experienced by individuals is influenced by the magnitude and accessibility of the different types of self-discrepancies they possess. In both studies, Ss filled out a measure of self-discrepancy a few weeks prior to the experimental session. Ss were asked to list up to 10 attributes each for their actual self, their ideal self (their own or others' hopes and goals for them), and their ought self (their own or others' beliefs about their duty and obligations). In Study 1, Ss asked to imagine a positive or negative event who had a predominant actual–ideal discrepancy felt more dejected on a mood measure and wrote more slowly on a writing-speed task in the negative event condition than in the positive event condition. Ss with a predominant actual–ought discrepancy felt more agitated and wrote more quickly in the negative event condition. In Study 2, Ss high or low in both kinds of discrepancies were either asked to discuss their own and their parents' hopes and goals for them (ideal priming) or asked to discuss their own and their parents' beliefs concerning their duty and obligations (ought priming). For high-discrepancy Ss, ideal priming increased their dejection, whereas ought priming increased their agitation. (59 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The independence of positive and negative affect.

Five studies, with 776 undergraduates and 34 33–85 yr old community residents, investigated the relation beween positive and negative affect. Instruments included the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale, Eysenck Personality Inventory, and 16PF. In Studies 1 and 2, positive feelings were remembered as being nearly independent of negative feelings in the past year, but the 2 types of affect were moderately negatively correlated for the past month. In Studies 3 and 5, Ss completed daily mood reports for 70 and 30 days, respectively. In Study 4, Ss completed 3-wk, daily, and moment mood reports and also filled out reports when they experienced strong emotions. The principal finding was that the relation between positive and negative affect differed greatly depending on the time frame. The strongest negative correlation between the 2 affects occurred during emotional times. The correlation decreased in a linear fashion as the time span covered increased logarithmically. It appears that positive and negative affect are independent in terms of how much people feel in their lives over longer time periods. (38 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Dogmatic responses to belief dissimilarity in the "bogus stranger" paradigm.

Investigated the relationship between dogmatism and responses to belief dissimilarity in 3 studies, using 599 undergraduates in the bogus-stranger paradigm. In Study 1, 273 Ss completed an opinion survey and were subsequently telephoned and asked to participate in the 2nd phase of the research. Ss were seated individually in a cubicle and shown how another individual (bogus stranger) responded to 7 attitude statements on the questionnaire. Ss were asked to indicate perceived agreement, the relative importance of topics, and attraction to the stranger. In Study 2, 80 Ss were used in a single experimental session. In Study 3, with 246 Ss a single-session, mass-administered procedure was employed. Results show a positive relation between dogmatism and rejection of a disagreeing other. There was also evidence of a positive relation between dogmatism and evaluation of the issues of disagreement and minimization of the discrepancy in opinion. (20 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

In defense of the Velten mood induction procedure.

Examined whether the Velton Mood Induction procedure (VMIC) (E. Velton, 1968) produced mood effects only through demand characteristics, in 2 studies. In study 1, 50 undergraduates were assigned to 1 of the 5 mood conditions: Positive, negative, neutral, and positive and negative demand. They were presented the VMIC, and were then asked to complete the Multiple Affect Adjective Check List (MAACL). In study 2, 49 Ss were assigned to 1 of 4 imagine conditions with target moods: Elated, depressed, in a positive or negative mood; and were then asked to complete the MAACL. Mood effects of the VMIC were genuine and not simply the product of demand characteristics. Ss reported mood change after reading the VMIC. The VMIC did not provide Ss with information about a mood state that they did not already know, and Ss did not respond more extremely to the moods of depression and elation as compared to negative and positive moods. (French abstract) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Prospective and cross-sectional mood reports offer no evidence of a "blue Monday" phenomenon.

Conducted 3 studies, 2 using prospective and 1 using cross-sectional methods, to examine mood variation in married men over the days of the week. In Study 1, 46 Ss (mean age 42 yrs) kept a record of daily events, illnesses, and moods for 90 consecutive days. In Study 2, 58 Ss (mean age 43 yrs) also kept records, but for 112 days; severe dysphoric mood was also measured. 57 Ss in Study 2 also were asked on the telephone about which days of the week were worst and best for their mood. 21 Ss from this study also participated in a study in which they reported on their mood 5 times/day for 2 wks. In Study 3, 616 Ss (aged 18–60 yrs) completed 1 depressed mood scale. Although Ss thought that their mood was lowest on Monday, mood measures collected on a daily basis did not support the belief. Monday's mood was not different than mood on Tuesday, Wednesday, or Thursday, but positive mood was higher and negative mood was lower on the weekend; measures of depressed mood did not vary by day of the week. (14 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The dimensions underlying perceived attitudes: Liberalism and concern for traditional values.

Two studies identified and labeled the dimensions that people use to judge others' attitudes. In the 1st study, 50 male and 50 female undergraduates viewed pairs of attitude statements drawn from 1 or 2 large sets. For each pair of statements, Ss judged whether or not a person who agreed with one statement in the pair would be likely to agree with the other. The dimensions of liberalism and traditional values were found to underlie perceived attitudes. Validity was confirmed in a 2nd study with 60 male and 60 female undergraduates who rated the characteristics of hypothetical people who agreed strongly with particular statements. Results suggest that there is a common structure to people's perceptions of others' attitudes. (French abstract) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of mood on self-appraisal of health status.

Investigated the effects of temporary mood on the self-perception of health status in 2 experiments, using 44 and 90 undergraduates, respectively. In Exp I, Ss viewed 1 of 2 videotapes designed to induce either positive or negative mood and were asked to imagine an illness-related scenario and to provide judgments concerning their health status. Positive-induction Ss judged their health more favorably than negative-induction Ss. In Exp II, Ss viewed 1 of 2 mood induction tapes, and some Ss were asked to imagine either an illness-related scenario or illness-unrelated scenario. A 3rd group was given no instructions. Data are consistent with the notion that negative mood can affect subjective appraisals of health by increasing the accessibility of illness-related memories. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of positive reframing and paradoxical directives in counseling for negative emotions.

Examined the effects of 2 paradoxical directives on negative emotions of 46 undergraduates whose Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) scores ranged from 10 to 30 and who identified themselves as experiencing negative emotions that they wanted to change. According to the 2?×?2 design of the 4-wk study, Ss received either positive reframing statements or no reframing statements and either paradoxical or nonparadoxical directives in a 2-interview treatment. Three male and 3 female counselors delivered the treatment in all conditions. Change in negative emotions was measured by pre–post differences on the BDI and on a self-report mood scale. Results indicate that positive reframing produced greater reduction in negative emotions than no reframing, although negative emotions were reduced in all conditions. The 2 directives did not differ in their effects on either of the measures. (10 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Laboratory induction of mood states through the reading of self-referent mood statements: Affective changes or demand characteristics?

Recent investigators have attempted to manipulate mood in the laboratory by having Ss read a series of self-referent mood statements and have reported significant changes in affect. The present study assessed the contribution of demand characteristics to the outcomes of these experiments. In addition to having Ss (female undergraduates) read elating, neutral, or depressing self-referent statements or instructing them to act elated or depressed, 2 counter-demand groups were included in which Ss read the elation or depression statements but were told to expect to feel the reverse of what the statements implied. Results indicate that demand characteristics do indeed contribute to mood shifts engendered by this technique, but that the shifts are not merely artifactual. (12 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Overlooking the incongruent: Categorization biases in the identification of political statements.

To explore factors affecting memory for statements expounding political positions, 2 experiments examined source attribution for 1-sentence political statements embedded in either congruent or incongruent contexts. In Exp I, 28 female undergraduates who were active in a campus feminist group and 26 who were not read essays by 4 writers of differing overall viewpoints on feminism; in Exp II, 32 undergraduates who were active in the anti-nuclear-power movement and 32 who were not read similar essays about nuclear power. Analysis revealed a pronounced "congruency bias"—both superior recognition memory and more accurate attribution to source for statements embodying a position consistent with the global position of the source. Among incongruent statements, however, there was significantly better source memory for statements that represented extreme, rather than moderate, departures from the overall position of the writer, an effect attributable in part to the greater salience of extremely incongruent items. There was also significantly better source attribution for statements made by writers whose global positions were relatively congenial to Ss and for statements embodying either minority positions or extreme versions of majority views. These effects were not moderated by either intensity of Ss' attitudes or instructions that specifically requested Ss to remember incongruent items. An extension of these studies that adjusted for response bias by transforming the source attribution dependent variable is appended. (27 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Mood effects on attitude judgments: Independent effects of mood before and after message elaboration.

Investigated the independent effects of induced mood on the encoding of persuasive messages and on the assessment of attitude judgments. In Exp 1, positive or negative mood was induced either before the encoding of a counterattitudinal message or before the assessment of attitude judgments. When mood was induced before message presentation, Ss in a bad mood were more persuaded by strong than by weak arguments, whereas Ss in a good mood were equally persuaded by strong and by weak arguments. When Ss encoded the message in a neutral mood, however, the advantage of strong over weak arguments was more pronounced when Ss were in a good rather than in a bad mood at the time of attitude assessment. In Exp 2, Ss exposed to a counterattitudinal message composed of either strong or weak arguments formed either a global evaluation or a detailed representation of the message. Positive, negative, or neutral mood was then induced. Ss in a good mood were most likely and Ss in a negative mood least likely to base their reported attitudes on global evaluations. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Emotional states and memory biases: Effects of cognitive priming and mood.

Recent studies have shown that naturally occurring and experimentally induced affect states enhance the accessibility to retrieval of memories of life experiences that are congruent in valence with the affect state. Previous studies have suggested that this memory bias results from the influence of affective processes on memory retrieval. Ss read statements expressing positive or negative self-evaluative ideas or describing somatic states that often accompany positive or negative mood states. The somatic and self-evaluative statements had, in general, equally strong effects on mood state. However, the self-evaluative statements had a stronger impact on recall latencies for life experiences than did the somatic statements. Moreover, the impact of the self-evaluative, but not the somatic, statements on recall was found to be independent of the statements' effect on mood state. This suggest that the cognitions accompanying a mood-altering experience may have a substantial effect on the capacity of the mood state to influence memory retrieval. (32 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Positive mood and persuasion: Different roles for affect under high- and low-elaboration conditions.

Two experiments examined the processes by which positive mood influences attitude change under high and low message elaboration conditions. To examine elaboration, Exp 1 included individuals who differed in their need for cognition, and Exp 2 manipulated the relevance of the message. In each study, Ss were exposed to a persuasive communication following a positive or neutral mood induction. In both studies, positive mood produced more positive attitudes toward the advocacy, but positive mood influenced the positivity of Ss' thoughts only under high-elaboration conditions. Path analyses showed that positive mood had a direct effect on attitudes in the low-elaboration conditions but influenced attitudes indirectly by modifying the positivity of thoughts in the high-elaboration conditions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Learned helplessness and learned resourcefulness: Effects of noncontingent success and failure on individuals differing in self-control skills.

In Exp I, 72 undergraduates were assessed using the Self-Control Schedule and received noncontingent success-, failure-, or no-feedback on a task that ostensibly assessed therapeutic abilities. Ss were subsequently tested on insolvable puzzles. In Exp II, 72 undergraduates followed the same procedure as in Exp I but were subsequently tested on solvable anagrams. Results show that the performance of Ss with low resourcefulness (LR) in self-control skills on the insolvable puzzles was debilitated by the helplessness induction, while Ss with high resourcefulness (HR) and LR Ss showed equal helplessness-induced deficits on the anagrams. As predicted from the self-control model, HR Ss more frequently checked statements indicating positive self-evaluations and task-oriented thoughts and less frequently checked negative self-evaluations than did LR Ss during exposure to uncontrollability in both experiments. It is concluded that the self-control model best accounts for Ss' self-reactions during exposure to uncontrollability or failure, while the learned helplessness model accounts for the generalization of helplessness from uncontrollable situations to controllable ones. The list of self-referent statements used in the experiments is appended. (46 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The influence of positive affect on the unusualness of word associations.

Investigated the influence of positive affect, induced in 33 differing ways, on the uniqueness of word associations in 2 studies with 227 undergraduates. In Study 1, affect was induced by means of word-association to affectively balanced words. Results show that Ss in the positive-affect conditions gave more unusual 1st associates to neutral words, according to the norms developed by D. S. Palermo and J. J. Jenkins (1964) in a pilot study, than did Ss in the control conditions. In Study 2, where word type (positive, neutral, negative) was a 2nd factor along with affect, in a between-Ss design, associates to positive words were also more unusual and diverse than were those to other words. Results are related to those of studies suggesting that positive affect may facilitate creative problem solving and to other work suggesting an impact of positive feelings on cognitive organization. Findings indicate unusual or flexible responding as a function of positive affect. (45 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)