Commingled natural fibre/polypropylene wrap spun yarns for structured thermoplastic composites

A major challenge for natural fibre composites is to achieve high mechanical performance at a competitive price. Composites constructed from yarns perform better than composites made from random nonwoven mats. However, the twist structure of conventional ring spun yarns prevents the full utilization of fibre mechanical properties in the final composites. We produced flax/polypropylene commingled wrap yarns in which all flax fibres were twistless. Composites made from the wrap yarn demonstrated significant improvement of flexural modulus. Most currently available low cost natural fibres, such as decorticated hemp, cannot be efficiently made into yarns because of their lack of cohesion. Adding polypropylene fibres to decorticated hemp improved textile processing performance. The polypropylene fibres served as a carrier for the natural fibres during processing and became the polymer matrix in the final composites.     

Determining the minimum,critical and maximum fibre content for twisted yarn reinforced plant fibre composites

The effect of fibre volume fraction on the physical and tensile properties of aligned plant fibre composites (PFCs) produced via vacuum infusion has been investigated. There is no clear correlation between fibre volume fraction and porosity. However, low fibre content PFCs are prone to intra-yarn voids, while high fibre content PFCs are prone to inter-yarn voids. This is due to changing resin flow dynamics with increasing fibre content.     

A comparative study of fatigue behaviour of flax/epoxy and glass/epoxy composites

Experimental investigations on flax and glass fabrics reinforced epoxy specimens, i.e. FFRE and GFRE, submitted to fatigue tests are presented in this paper. Samples having [0/90]_3S and [±45]_3S stacking sequences, with similar fibre volume fractions have been tested under tension–tension fatigue loading. The specific stress-number of cycles to failure (S–N) curves, show that for the [0/90]_3S specimens, FFRE have lower fatigue endurance than GFRE, but the [±45]_3S FFRE specimens offer better specific fatigue endurance than similar GFRE, in the studied life range (<2 × 10⁶). Overall, the three-stage stiffness degradation is observed in all cases except for [0/90]_3S FFRE specimens, which present a stiffening phenomenon of around 2–3% which could be related to the straightening of the microfibrils.     

Acoustic emission analysis for characterisation of damage mechanisms in fibre reinforced thermosetting polyurethane and epoxy

Acoustic emission analysis is used to investigate microscopic damage mechanisms and damage progress in unidirectional glass and carbon fibre reinforced composites. Under static loading the influence of fibre orientation on damage initiation and propagation is determined. A novel polyurethane matrix system significantly enhances material performance in terms of crack initiation load levels, crack growth, damage tolerance and off-axis tensile strength. Hysteresis measurements during stepwise increasing dynamic load tests highlight the effect of fibre–matrix-adhesion and resin fracture toughness in unidirectional 0° fibre reinforced composites. Acoustic detection of beginning fibre breakage correlates with a significant increase of loss work per cycle.     

Effect of coupling agent on natural fibre in natural fibre/polypropylene composites on mechanical and thermal behaviour

To enhance the adhesion between the natural fibre and the thermoplastic matrix, a coupling agent of maleic anhydride grafted polypropylene MAPP is applied. In literature, there are different guidelines of the optimum percentage required of MAPP. Therefore, a systematic work is carried out to optimise the MAPP percent with respect to the type of the natural fibre. Different parameters are investigated namely; Coupling agent ratio to the fibre (0%, 6.67%, 10%, 13.3%, 16.67%), coupling agent source, fibre type (flax, hemp, sisal), and fibre content (30%, 50%). Composite is produced using a kneader and the resulting material is assessed mechanically, thermally, microscopically and for water absorption. For different MAPP source and the natural fibre type, optimum MAPP to fibre ratio is found in average to range between 10% and 13.3% according to the investigated property (stiffness, strength and impact). Increase of MAPP is found to decrease the melting temperature. The thermal behaviour is also linked to the copolymer molecular weight.     

Damage development in woven carbon fiber/epoxy composites modified with carbon nanotubes under tension in the bias direction

The study investigates the effect of carbon nanotubes (CNTs) on the damage development in a woven carbon fiber/epoxy composite under quasi-static tension in the bias direction. The composite is produced by the resin transfer molding and contains 0.25 wt.% of CNTs in the matrix. The tensile tests are carried out till different strain levels and are accompanied with acoustic emission (AE) registration. The nano-modified composite possesses a higher stiffness and strain-to-failure. It also exhibits a significantly increased AE activity, both in terms of the number of events and the energy level, but reveals a lower crack density. The combined analysis of the AE data and X-ray images indicates that in the nano-modified composite cracks progress through the material in smaller jumps than in the virgin composite. The crack faces in the composite with CNTs also display a fine web of secondary fractures, which is not detected in the virgin composite.     

The effect of pre-softened wood chips on wood fibre aspect ratio and mechanical properties of wood–polymer composites

The objective of this work was to study the effect of chemical pre-treatment and moisture content of wood chips on the wood particle aspect ratio after compounding in a twin-screw extruder and on the mechanical properties of wood–polymer composites (WPCs). Composites with 50 wt.% wood content were manufactured using pre-treated and untreated wood chips. The effect of wood moisture content on composite properties was studied by using dried and undried wood chips. The mechanical properties and fracture surfaces of the composites as well as the microstructure and aspect ratio of wood particles after compounding were studied. The highest wood particle aspect ratio after extrusion was achieved by using pre-treated, undried wood chips as raw material. The chemical pre-treatment was found to enhance the defibration of wood chips as well as the mechanical properties of the composites.     

Controlled retting of hemp fibres: Effect of hydrothermal pre-treatment and enzymatic retting on the mechanical properties of unidirectional hemp/epoxy composites

The objective of this work was to investigate the use of hydrothermal pre-treatment and enzymatic retting to remove non-cellulosic compounds and thus improve the mechanical properties of hemp fibre/epoxy composites. Hydrothermal pre-treatment at 100 kPa and 121 °C combined with enzymatic retting produced fibres with the highest ultimate tensile strength (UTS) of 780 MPa. Compared to untreated fibres, this combined treatment exhibited a positive effect on the mechanical properties of hemp fibre/epoxy composites, resulting in high quality composites with low porosity factor (α_pf) of 0.08. Traditional field retting produced composites with the poorest mechanical properties and the highest α_pf of 0.16. Hydrothermal pretreatment at 100 kPa and subsequent enzymatic retting resulted in hemp fibre composites with the highest UTS of 325 MPa, and stiffness of 38 GPa with 50% fibre volume content, which was 31% and 41% higher, respectively, compared to field retted fibres.     

A practical structural health monitoring system for carbon fibre reinforced composite based on electrical resistance

A practical structural health monitoring system based on measuring changes in the electrical resistance of a carbon fibre composite structure is presented. Electrical contact with the fibres is provided by flexible printed circuit boards which are interleaved with the carbon fibre plies during the lamination of the composite. The resistance between opposite pairs of contacts was measured before and after an impact load which caused barely visible impact damage (BVID) in the panel. It was found that even low levels of impact damage produced measurable changes in resistance in the vicinity of the damage. Therefore was demonstrated that electrical resistance measurements are a practical means of locating BVID. Various parameters were studied in order to better understand the mechanisms involved and optimise the system for improved sensitivity and accuracy. The location of the contacts in the through thickness direction, the spacing and orientation of the contacts and the residual thermal stress of the laminate were all investigated and recommendations made. A structural health monitoring system for composites based on electrical resistance has several important potential benefits over acoustic, ultrasonic or optical methods; it adds little parasitic mass, causes no reduction in mechanical integrity, can be carried out on structures either in or out of service conditions and is very simple in concept, implementation and data interpretation.     

Investigation of damage mechanism of flax fibre LPET commingled composites by acoustic emission

Tensile failure and fracture behaviour of parallel laid twisted flax fibre reinforced low melting polyethylene terephthalate (LPET) composites were investigated. The tensile failure results of the model specimens were compared with AE results in terms of amplitude, energy and counts. The failure results of the flax fibre LPET composites exhibited mainly matrix crack initiation as a brittle failure for low, medium and high fibre contents. Since the composites at high fibre contents have higher porosity content, they show higher strain to failure, higher variation in the tensile results and have different appearances on their fracture surfaces than those of the composites at low and medium fibre contents.     

Effect of pectin and hemicellulose removal from hemp fibres on the mechanical properties of unidirectional hemp/epoxy composites

The objective of this study was to investigate the effect of pectin and hemicellulose removal from hemp fibres on the mechanical properties of hemp fibre/epoxy composites. Pectin removal by EDTA and endo-polygalacturonase (EPG) removed epidermal and parenchyma cells from hemp fibres and improved fibre separation. Hemicellulose removal by NaOH further improved fibre surface cleanliness. Removal of epidermal and parenchyma cells combined with improved fibre separation decreased composite porosity factor. As a result, pectin removal increased composite stiffness and ultimate tensile strength (UTS). Hemicellulose removal increased composite stiffness, but decreased composite UTS due to removal of xyloglucans. In comparison of all fibre treatments, composites with 0.5% EDTA + 0.2% EPG treated fibres had the highest tensile strength of 327 MPa at fibre volume content of 50%. Composites with 0.5% EDTA + 0.2% EPG → 10% NaOH treated fibres had the highest stiffness of 43 GPa and the lowest porosity factor of 0.04.     

Porous polyurethane composites with natural fibres

In the work the methodology and results of the investigations that concern rigid polyurethane foams modified with natural fibres and oil-based polyol are presented. The goal of the investigations was to obtain the cellular, polyurethane composites with the heat insulating and mechanical properties similar or better as in the case of the reference material. The obtained polyurethane composites had apparent densities about 40 kg/m³. The modified composites contained the considerable part of biodegradable components on the base of renewable raw materials. The influence of the rapeseed oil-based polyol, flax and hemp fibres of different length on the cell structure, closed cells content, apparent density, thermal conductivity and compression strength of the rigid polyurethane composites are analyzed. In the case of application of fibre in the amount of 5% php (per hundred polyols) the foam composites with the highest values of compressive strength and the lowest thermal conductivity were obtained.     

Lignocellulosic fibre mediated rubber composites: An overview

The rising concern towards the reduction in the use of petroleum-based, non-renewable resources and the need for more versatile polymer-based composite materials have led to increasing interests on natural polymer composites filled with natural organic fillers, i.e. coming from renewable and biodegradable sources. This paper reviews wood flour and other lignocellulosic fibres filled rubber composites, including cellulosic rubber composites, cellulosic thermoplastic elastomers, nanocellulose based rubber nanocomposites, with the aims at providing the most state of the art information for directing further scientific research, possible commercialization and design of cellulosic rubber composites. It has been found that 1) the surface properties of natural cellulose, hence the compatibility and interface of the natural cellulose and matrix rubber/plastics, are crucial for the successful development of the composites, such, physical and chemical modification and additives have been widely attempted to improve the incompatibility and poor interfacial adhesion between the filler and matrix; 2) the curing characteristics, mechanical properties, thermal stability and morphologies of the composites are complex but closely related to not only the interfacial properties, but also the compositions (e.g. the concentration of cellulosic materials) and other processing parameters; 3) the nature of hydrophilic cellulosic and hydrophobic matrix rubber and/or plastics requires an accurate introduction of coupling agent, one end of its structure shall be compatible to hydrophilic and the other to hydrophobic. The reviews on the main paths and results of study on the advanced nanocellulose reinforced rubber nanocomposites and sandwiches indicate much potentials and needs for further in-depth studies.     

Manufacturing strategies for microvascular polymeric composites: A review

A microvascular network within a composite structure can significantly boost its performance. However, properties of microvascular network and host structure largely depend on the manufacturing method, used for vascularization. This paper presents a review on various manufacturing strategies that have been implemented so far to produce vascularized polymer composites. The ways by which polymer composites can be vascularized with isolated or interconnected networks are based on either by incorporating pre-made channels or removing pre-loaded solid performs from the cured laminates. Majority of the techniques were developed for healing and recovery of structural integrity after quasi-static fracture, but microvascular networks also showed promise for enhanced-damage visualization, self-cooling, and damage sensing applications. Each technique has its own merits and demerits but the manufacturing techniques that are not only compatible with current composite manufacturing, but also give the freedom to embed complex channels which can execute multi-functions synchronously still remains the main challenge.     

Investigation of the long term effects of moisture on carbon fibre and epoxy matrix composites

The aim of this work is to investigate the long term effects of moisture on the interface between a carbon fibre and an epoxy matrix. High modulus carbon fibres were used to prepare single fibre model composites based on an epoxy resin. The samples were immersed in the seawater and demineralised water and their moisture uptake behaviour was monitored. The equilibrium moisture content and diffusion coefficients for the samples were determined. DSC has been used to analyse the moisture effects on glass transition temperature and thermal stability of the pure epoxy specimens. These results showed a reduction in the glass transition temperature (T_g) after moisture absorption. Tensile tests were also carried out for the epoxy specimens and a general decrease in the mechanical properties of the epoxy matrix was observed. Raman spectroscopy was used to observe the effects of moisture on the axial strain of the carbon fibre within the composite and stress transfer at the interface as a function of exposure time. The results show that the decrease in the mechanical and interfacial properties of the model composites under the seawater immersion is more significant than under demineralised water immersion.     

Rheological and mechanical properties of surface modified multi-walled carbon nanotube-filled PET composite

Poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET)/multi-walled carbon nanotube (MWCNT) composites were prepared by in situ polymerization. To improve the dispersion of MWCNTs in PET matrix, the surface modified MWCNTs having acid groups (acid-MWCNT) and diamine groups (diamine-MWCNT) were used. The functional groups on the surface of modified MWCNTs were confirmed by infrared (IR) spectrometry. SEM analysis showed better dispersion of diamine-MWCNTs as compared to pristine-MWCNTs and acid-MWCNTs in the PET. The reaction between PET and diamine-MWCNTs was evidenced by the shifting of the G band to a higher frequency in Raman spectroscopy and an increase of the complex viscosity in rheological properties. The composites containing functionalized MWCNTs showed a large increase in the tensile strength and modulus. The PET/diamine-MWCNT composites showed maximum tensile strength and modulus increases by 350% and 290% at 0.5 and 2.0 wt%, respectively, as compared to pure PET.     

Ternary nano-CaCO3/poly(ethylene terephthalate) fiber/polypropylene composites: Increased impact strength and reinforcing mechanism

The binary nano-CaCO₃/polypropylene (PP), poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET) fibers/PP and ternary nano-CaCO₃/PET fibers/polypropylene composites were prepared by melt blending method, and their structure and mechanical properties were investigated. The results show that the ternary nano-CaCO₃/PET fibers/PP composite displays significantly enhanced mechanical properties compared with the binary PET fibers/PP and nano-CaCO₃/PP composites, and neat PP. The X-ray diffraction, dynamic mechanical analysis, scanning electron microscopy and analysis of the non-isothermal crystallization kinetics were used to investigate the reinforcement mechanism of composites. The results indicate that the interfacial action and compatibility between PET fiber and PP are obviously enhanced by the addition of modified nano-CaCO₃ particles in the ternary composites and the mechanical property enhancement in the ternary system may be mainly originated from the formation of β-form crystallites of PP induced by the synergistic effect between PET fibers and nano-CaCO_3.     

Improvement of impact property of natural fiber–polypropylene composite by using natural rubber and EPDM rubber

In this research, vetiver grass was used as a filler in polypropylene (PP) composite. Chemical treatment was done to modify fiber surface. Natural rubber (NR) and Ethylene Propylene Diene Monomer (EPDM) rubber at various contents were used as an impact modifier for the composites. The composites were prepared by using an injection molding. Rheological, morphological and mechanical properties of PP and PP composites with and without NR or EPDM were studied. Adding NR or EPDM to PP composites, a significant increase in the impact strength and elongation at break is observed in the PP composite with rubber content more than 20% by weight. However, the tensile strength and Young’s modulus of the PP composites decrease with increasing rubber contents. Nevertheless, the tensile strength and Young’s modulus of the composites with rubber contents up to 10% are still higher than those of PP. Moreover, comparisons between NR and EPDM rubber on the mechanical properties of the PP composites were elucidated. The PP composites with EPDM rubber show slightly higher tensile strength and impact strength than the PP composites with NR.     

Quantification of uncertainty modelling in stochastic analysis of FRP composites

The extensive use of FRP composite materials in a wide range of industries, and their inherent variability, has prompted many researchers to assess their performance from a probabilistic perspective. This paper attempts to quantify the uncertainty in FRP composites and to summarise the different stochastic modelling approaches suggested in the literature. Researchers have considered uncertainties starting at a constituent (fibre/matrix) level, at the ply level or at a coupon or component level. The constituent based approach could be further classified as a random variable based stochastic computational mechanics approach (whose usage is comparatively limited due to complex test data requirements and possible uncertainty propagation errors) and the more widely used morphology based random composite modelling which has been recommended for exploring local damage and failure characteristics. The ply level analysis using either stiffness/strength or fracture mechanics based models is suggested when the ply characteristics influence the composite properties significantly, or as a way to check the propagation of uncertainties across length scales. On the other hand, a coupon or component level based uncertainty modelling is suggested when global response characteristics govern the design objectives. Though relatively unexplored, appropriate cross-fertilisation between these approaches in a multi-scale modelling framework seems to be a promising avenue for stochastic analysis of composite structures. It is hoped that this review paper could facilitate and strengthen this process.     

Covalent functionalization of graphene with organosilane and its use as a reinforcement in epoxy composites

Functionalized graphene nanosheets (f-GNSs) produced by chemically grafting organosilane were synthesized by a simple covalent functionalization with 3-aminopropyl triethoxysilane. The f-GNSs showed a larger thickness, but smaller width and than the un-treated graphene. The covalent functionalization of graphene with silane was favorable for their homogeneous dispersion in the polymer matrix even at a high nanofiller loading (1 wt.%). The initial thermal degradation temperature of epoxy composite was increased from 314 °C to 334 °C, at a f-GNS content of 1 wt.%. Meanwhile, the addition of 1 wt.% f-GNSs increased the tensile strength and elongation to failure of epoxy resins by 45% and 133%, respectively. This is believed to be attributed to the strong interfacial interactions between f-GNSs and the epoxy resins by covalent functionalization. The experimentally determined Young’s modulus corresponded well with theoretical simulation under the hypothesis that the graphene sheets randomly dispersed in the polymer matrix.