Quality of soybeans in export

Soybean quality is of concern to processors throughout the world, as deterioration during storage, handling and shipment can result in crude oil which is difficult to process and has high refining losses. Little information is available comparing the relative quality of soybeans in export shipment based on crop year and origin. Shipments of soybeans originating from the United States, Brazil, Paraguay, and Argentina were sampled in Europe and Asia during a four-year period. Soybean samples were graded, protein and oil contents determined, and oil quality characteristics assessed by laboratory procedures. Results of these analyses present, for the first time, direct comparisons of the quality of soybeans exported from the principal producing countries. The data suggests that United States (U.S.) farmers and exporters must continue their efforts to improve the physical characteristics of soybeans in export shipment; the emphasis of breeding and genetic engineering research should be to increase the protein content of soybeans grown in the U.S.; and that the high quality of crude oil recovered from U.S. soybeans should prove an advantage to the processor using soybeans imported from the United States.     

世界抗草甘膦大豆的新进展

从1996年开始种植抗草甘膦大豆以来,农民迅速接受,种植面积持续扩大,其主要原因在于抗草甘膦大豆为农民提供了一种简而易行的除草方法,应用草甘膦既可防除大多数阔叶与禾本科杂草又不伤害后茬作物。抗草甘膦大豆促使苗后杂草防除,有利于实施免耕及窄行密植以提高产量。     

7. The efficacy and loss of fertilizer N in lowland rice

Nitrogen fertilization is a key input in increasing rice production in East, South, and Southeast Asia. The introduction of high-yielding varieties has greatly increased the prospect of increasing yields, but this goal will not be reached without great increases in the use and efficiency of N on rice. Nitrogen enters a unique environment in flooded soils, in which losses of fertilizer N and mechanisms of losses vary greatly from those in upland situations. Whereas upland crops frequently use 40–60% of the applied N, flooded rice crops typically use only 20–40%. There is a great potential for increasing the efficiency of N uptake on this very responsive crop to help alleviate food deficits in the developing world.This article reviews current use of N fertilizers (particularly urea) on rice, the problems associated with rice fertilization, and recent research results that aid understanding of problems associated with N fertilization of rice and possible avenues to increase the efficiency of N use by rice.     

Increasing the supply of soybeans

The increase in supply and use of soybeans during the past 40 years has been a dramatic change in world agriculture—the “Dark Green Evolution.” The driving forces have been expanding population and income levels, increasing demand for protein and edible oils, pressures on other crop prices, and production and utilization research. The large growth of supply has been in temperate areas of North and South America, where increases will continue but at much slower rates than in the past. Production will increase in tropical and subtropical areas and soybeans will truly become a worldwide commercial crop. The rate of increase in supply will depend largely on the magnitude and effectiveness of research, education and developmental programs designed to exploit the full potential of the soybean to upgrade diets and alleviate the growing world malnutrition problem.     

Nitrogen availability to maize as affected by fertilizer application and soil type in the Tanzanian highlands

Enhancing crop production by maintaining a proper synchrony between soil nitrogen (N) and crop N demand remains a challenge, especially in under-studied tropical soils of Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). For two consecutive cropping seasons (2013–2015), we monitored the fluctuation of soil inorganic N and its availability to maize in the Tanzanian highlands. Different urea-N rates (0–150 kg N ha^?1; split into two dressings) were applied to two soil types (TZi, sandy Alfisols; and TZm, clayey Andisols). In the early growing season, soil mineralized N was exposed to the leaching risk due to small crop N demand. In the second N application (major N supply accounting for two-thirds of the total N), applied urea was more efficient in increasing soil inorganic N availability at TZm than at TZi. Such effect of soil type could be the main contributor to the higher yield at TZm (up to 4.4 Mg ha^?1) than that at TZi (up to 2.6 Mg ha^?1) under the same N rate. The best-fitted linear-plateau model indicated that the soil inorganic N availability (0–0.3 m) at the tasseling stage largely accounted for the final yield. Further, yields at TZi were still limited by N availability at the tasseling stage due to fast depletion of applied-N, whereas yields plateaued at TZm once N availability was above 67 kg N ha^?1. Our results provided a valuable reference for designing the N management to increase yield, while minimizing the potentially adverse losses of N to the environment, in different agro-ecological zones in SSA.     

Identification of opportunities for improved nitrogen management in sugarcane cropping systems using the newly developed Canegro-N model

Sugarcane (Saccharum spp. L.) cropping systems require the application of substantial amounts of fertiliser nitrogen (N), especially under irrigated conditions and in areas where rainfall is sufficient for high dry matter production. Inadequate N applications can reduce yields, while excess N or inappropriately timed applications can result in the export of significant quantities of N to the environment as a pollutant. An N subroutine has now been included into the Canegro crop model which is based in the DSSAT (Decision Support System for Agrotechnology Transfer) framework. Data from a field and lysimeter trial conducted in Pongola, South Africa were used to calibrate and evaluate the model, following which the model was used to investigate two potential approaches to improve fertiliser N management. Findings were, firstly, that measured and simulated results show on-farm monitoring of soil inorganic N levels and adjusting fertiliser applications accordingly has considerable potential for reducing fertiliser requirements and N losses. Secondly, during the periods between active crop growth cycles, significant amounts of inorganic N can accumulate in a soil as a result of mineralisation. Accounting for this N enables fertiliser N application to be delayed to some time after planting or commencement of ratoon growth, thereby significantly reducing the risky period during which applied N may be leached. For the system modelled in this study, inorganic N made available through organic matter mineralisation was sufficient to match initial crop demand for ~55 days following ratooning. When ammonium-based fertilisers are used, lower volatilisation losses can also be expected with this strategy. These findings now need to be confirmed in field trials. Modelling, combined with adequate measured data for calibration purposes, can be a powerful tool to identify improved N management practices for a particular cropping system. In its current form, Canegro-N can be used to improve our understanding of N dynamics in sugarcane production systems and to guide management practices and future research.     

Nitrogen and potassium fertilizer vs. nematode and weevil effects on yield and foliar nutrient status of banana in Uganda

Banana (Musa AAA) production is declining in central Uganda. A decline in soil fertility is often cited as one of the causes of the declining production. From 1996 to 1998, we studied banana yield responses to N and K fertilization at three sites in Uganda, where plantations ranged in age from 8 to 50 years. Phosphorus was applied to all treatments at 25 kg ha⁻¹, while N and K were applied (kg ha⁻¹) at 0N-0K, 0N-100K, 100N-0K, 100N-100K, and 100N-200K. Fresh fruit yields ranged from 4 to 67 Mg ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹. At one site the yield response to 100N-100K fertilization was significant (p < 0.01). The other sites showed positive but non-significant yield responses to N or NK fertilization. Economic analysis indicated that fertilizer use would be profitable only at the single site with significant yield increases. This site had negligible banana weevil (Cosmopolites sordidus (Germar)) and nematode (Radopholus similis; Helicotylenchus multicinctus) populations whereas the other sites were characterized by either severe nematode or weevil pressure. Fertilizer did not affect the damage caused by either nematodes or weevils. The best predictor of yield (p< 0.001, r ² = 0.75) was the number of functional leaves during anthesis. Measured soil nutrient parameters were highly variable but fell within sufficiency ranges. Foliar N contents were near diagnostic norms, but K levels fell below them, even when yields were satisfactory, suggesting that norms developed from other regions may not be suitable for Uganda. We conclude that in established plantations soil nutrient status is but one, and often a secondary, factor in the decline of banana yields in the central region of Uganda. Pest and disease infestations that result in reduced plantation productivity will need to be addressed before fertilizer use is likely to make a significant improvement in banana fruit yields. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

The oilseed industry of India—potential for food use of proteins

India is one of the major oilseed-producing areas in the world with approximately 11% of its tillable land, 37 million acres, devoted to the various oilseed crops. Peanut is the principal oilseed, but enough sesame, rape and mustard, flax and castor are grown that they are classified as major oilseeds in Indian statistics. Cottonseed and rice bran are gaining in importance as vegetable oil sources and a host of native seeds such as neem, mohwa, kusum and sal are being promoted as sources of inedible fats for soap manufacture. There is a very real potential for soybeans in the Indian economy. Under AID contract, teams from the University of Illinois have been exploring the possibilities of growing soybeans at the Uttar Pradesh Agricultural University at Pantnager and the Jawaharal Nehru University at Jabalpur. Several United States varieties, particularly Bragg, grow well, and yields as high as the 60 to 70 bushels per acre range have been achieved in thekharif or rainy season (planting in late June, harvesting in October-November), and yields of approximately 60 bushels per acre have been obtained from early soybeans such as Ford planted as a second crop on irrigated land in therabi or Spring season (planting in mid-February, harvesting in May–June). Oilseed processing ranges from the primitive ghani, a bullock-driven mortar and pestle, to relatively modern prepress-solvent extraction plants. Extraction plant size is small by American standards, ranging from 50 tons to about 100 or perhaps 150 tons per day. Limited quantities of the oilseed cakes and meals are used domestically for animal feeding, the bulk being shipped to European markets. With 550 million people there is urgent need for food protein in India, and oilseed proteins offer potential for supplementing traditional dishes. Corn soya milk (CSM) has had fair to excellent acceptance in various localities, and much ingenuity has been shown in adapting CSM to native cuisine. Now, an Indian counterpart, Balahar, is being formulated using peanut flour as the major protein source. This requires costly hand picking of peanuts to reduce the level of aflatoxin in the peanut flour to 120 ppb (equivalent to the FAO guideline of 30 ppb in the resultant Balahar). There is only limited potential for oilseed protein supplementation of bread and chapaties. A number of regional foods offer local opportunities for supplementation by oilseed flours and grits; and dal, which is used by both the rice-eating peoples of South and East India and the bread-eating people of North India could consume from one million to four million tons of oilseed meals per year (10% to 25% supplementation) with little or no change in consistency or flavor. One of 21 papers presented at the Symposium, “Oilseed Processors Challenged by World Protein Need,” ISF-AOCS World Congress, Chicago, September 1970.     

Estimated NH3-volatilization losses from surface-applied urea on a wet calcareous Vertisol

Severe losses of NH₃ by volatilization are often reported when urea is surface applied to calcareous soils. Applications on wet soils may increase these losses. This study with N rates of 0, 20, 40, 80, 160, and 320 kg ha^?1 estimates the efficiency of urea application and predicts NH₃-volatilization losses when urea is surface applied on a wet calcareous soil. Placements consisted of three different methods of applying urea on or in the dry soil just prior to irrigation and a surface-broadcast treatment following irrigation. There were no significant yield differences between dry-soil placements, but all dry-soil placements gave significantly higher yields than did broadcast placement of urea on the wet soil. Thus, a second-order regression equation relating N rate and yield for dry-soil placements and another for wet-soil placement were used to determine the efficiency of wet- vs dry-soil applications of urea and to predict NH₃-volatilization losses from the wet soil. The efficiency was determined by three different procedures. The first compared the amount of N needed for wet- vs dry-soil conditions to produce discrete yields. The second compared the slope of the yield curves at discrete yield levels to determine the ratio of the amount of N needed to produce one additional increment of yield under wet- vs dry-soil conditions. The third was an estimation of the availability coefficient according to a method recently developed by HR Tejeda and others. Predicted NH₃ -volatilization losses were calculated from the efficiency values because loss of NH₃ from urea applied on or in dry soil followed very shortly by an irrigation should be almost nil. The efficiency factors averaged 55% for the first procedure and 51% for the second while the availability coefficient was 59%. Thus, the average estimate for efficiency of urea on wet vs dry soil was 55% and predicted losses of N by NH₃ volatilization averaged 45% when urea was applied to the wet surface of this calcareous soil.     

Effect of defoliation and phosphorus concentration in the sown seed on the response of swards of annual pasture legumes to superphosphate applications

The relationship between dry matter (DM) herbage yield and the level of superphosphate applied to the soil (soil P) was measured for swards of annual pasture legumes in four glasshouse and two field experiments. A single cultivar of one species was used in each experiment. The swards were either uncut, or cut at weekly intervals to a height of 1.5 to 3 cm from the soil surface from about one month after sowing. The sown seeds of each species were of the same size but contained different P concentrations (seed P).For the glasshouse experiments, defoliation reduced DM herbage yields of the species (Trifolium subterraneum, T. balansae, Medicago polymorpha andOrnithopus compressus) by between 20 to 50% two months after sowing, and by 50 to 75% three months after sowing. Higher seed P increased DM herbage yields two months after sowing by about 25% for the lowest soil P level and by 15% for the highest soil P level. Three months after sowing the values were 12 and 8%.In one field experiment, compared with uncut swards, the DM herbage yields for the weekly cut swards ofT. subterraneum were reduced by up to about 5% for the lowest soil P, compared with up to 25% for the highest soil P. Corresponding reductions forM. polymorpha swards in the other field experiment were about 15 and 20%. For the weekly cut swards, high seed P produced large increases in the cumulative DM yields of the weekly cut herbage. Increases for low soil P were about 300% at 2.5 months after sowing and 30% at 4.5 months after sowing. Corresponding values for high soil P were 100 and 20%. However, higher seed P produced only small (zero to 15%) increases in total DM yield of uncut and weekly cut swards (for the weekly cut swards, total DM yield was the cumulative yields of the weekly cut herbage plus the DM yield of the plant residues that were below the cutting height of the mower). Compared with uncut swards, seed production, measured forM. polymorpha only, was reduced by 40% when the swards were regularly cut. Higher seed P increased seed production of uncut swards by 40% for the lowest soil P level and by 25% for the highest soil P level. Corresponding values for the weekly cut swards were 30 and 20%.     

A critical analysis of challenges and opportunities for soil fertility restoration in Sudano-Sahelian West Africa

Since the 1970s, research throughout West Africa showed that low soil organic matter and limited availability of plant nutrients, in particular phosphorus and nitrogen, are major bottlenecks to agricultural productivity, which is further hampered by substantial topsoil losses through wind and water erosion. A few widely recognized publications pointing to massive nutrient mining of the existing crop–livestock production systems triggered numerous studies on a wide array of management strategies and policies suited to improve soil fertility. Throughout Sudano-Sahelian West Africa, the application of crop residue mulch, animal manure, rockphosphates and soluble mineral fertilizers have been shown to enhance crop yields, whereby yield increases varied with the agro-ecological setting and the rates of amendments applied. In more humid areas of Western Africa, the intercropping of cereals with herbaceous or ligneous leguminous species, the installation of fodder banks for increased livestock and manure production, and composting of organic material also proved beneficial to crop production. However, there is evidence that the low adoption of improved management strategies and the lack of long-term investments in soil fertility can be ascribed to low product prices for agricultural commodities, immediate cash needs, risk aversion and labour shortage of small-scale farmers across the region. The wealth of knowledge gathered during several decades of on-station and on-farm experimentation calls for an integration of these data into a database to serve as input variables for models geared towards ex-ante assessment of the suitability of technologies and policies at the scale of farms, communities and regions. Several modelling approaches exist that can be exploited in this sense. Yet, they have to be improved in their ability to account for agro-ecological and socio-economic differences at various geographical scales and for residual effects of management options, thereby allowing scenario analysis and guiding further fundamental and participatory research, extension and political counselling.     

Minimizing nitrogen losses from a corn–soybean–winter wheat rotation with best management practices

Best management practices are recommended for improving fertilizer and soil N uptake efficiency and reducing N losses to the environment. Few year-round studies quantifying the combined effect of several management practices on environmental N losses have been carried out. This study was designed to assess crop productivity, N uptake from fertilizer and soil sources, and N losses, and to relate these variables to the fate of fertilizer 15N in a corn (Zea mays L.)-soybean (Glycine max L.)-winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) rotation managed under Best Management (BM) compared with conventional practices (CONV). The study was conducted from May 2000 to October 2004 at Elora, Ontario, Canada. Cumulative NO₃ leaching loss was reduced by 51% from 133 kg N ha⁻¹ in CONV to 68 kg N ha⁻¹ in BM. About 70% of leaching loss occurred in corn years with fertilizer N directly contributing 11–16% to leaching in CONV and <4% in BM. High soil derived N leaching loss in CONV, which occurred mostly (about 80%) during November to April was attributable to 45–69% higher residual soil derived mineral N left at harvest, and on-going N mineralization during the over-winter period. Fertilizer N uptake efficiency (FNUE) was higher in BM (61% of applied) than in CONV (35% of applied) over corn and wheat years. Unaccounted gaseous losses of fertilizer N were reduced from 27% of applied in CONV to 8% of applied in BM. Yields were similar between BM and CONV (for corn: 2000 and 2003, wheat: 2002, soybean: 2004) or higher in BM (soybean: 2001). Results indicated that the use of judicious N rates in synchrony with plant N demand combined with other BMP (no-tillage, legume cover crops) improved FNUE by corn and wheat, while reducing both fertilizer and soil N losses without sacrificing yields.     

Fate of Phytic Acid in Producing Soy Protein Ingredients

Phytic acid (myo-inositol hexaphosphate) is present in soybeans and soy protein products at 1–2% dry matter. Phytate causes poor absorption of essential electrolytes and minerals, and binds to proteins and co-precipitates with isoelectric soy protein isolates. We determined how phytic acid partitioned during different procedures to prepare soy protein ingredients. Procedure and soybean variety significantly affected phytic acid content and recovery. High-sucrose/low-stachyose (HS/LS) soybeans contained significantly (P < 0.05) less phytate than did a typical variety of commodity soybeans (IA2020). In addition, phytate was more readily extracted from the commodity soybeans than from HS/LS soybeans. Among all procedures studied, ethanol-washed soy protein concentrate had the highest phytate contents and yields in the protein products for both soybean varieties (~80 mg/g and 99%, respectively). When protein extraction was carried out at room temperature the protein products had significantly lower phytate yields (60–78%) than when extraction was at 60 °C (80–99%). The protein products obtained from normal soybeans had significantly higher phytate contents than the same products made from HS/LS soybeans. When fractionating soy proteins, the glycinin-rich fraction contained significantly less phytate than the β-conglycinin fraction except for the fractionation procedure performed at room temperature instead of 4 °C.     

Referee chemists and official methods

The need for Referee Chemists was recognized more than 50 years ago. Currently the Examination Board of the American Oil Chemists’ Society issues certificates to commercial laboratories in the name of qualified representatives who are members of the AOCS. A total of 79 chemists presently hold Referee Certificates in categories of cottonseed, soybeans, peanuts, cottonseed oil and other cup refined oils, soybean oil and other neutral oil loss oils, tallow and grease, protein concentrates, and cellulose yields. Referee Certificates have also been issued to a few chemists in Japan and Canada. The National Cottonseed Products Association, National Soybean Processors Association, etc., publish listings of their Official Chemists, who must first obtain AOCS referee certificates. Laboratories holding certificates must use Official Methods of the AOCS wherever applicable. The AOCSOfficial and Tentative Methods is one of the leading sources of standard methods for the fat and oil industries in the world. The origin of the present edition of AOCSMethods is described, and the roles of the Uniform Methods Committee, various technical committees, and the editor in the development, publication, and distribution of the methods are discussed.     

Management implications of conservation tillage and poultry litter use for Southern Piedmont USA cropping systems

Conservation tillage and judicious use of animal manures as fertilizers can make significant contributions for sustainable food production in the twenty-first century. Identifying and understanding the many interactions occurring within agricultural systems is fundamental for accomplishing this feat. This paper synthesizes 14 years of research results from a study that began in the early 1990s in which researchers from USDA-ARS and the University of Georgia investigated cropping system influences on nutrient management under natural rainfall. Increases in C and N with no-till resulted in improved soil structure that increased infiltration rate and soil water availability. Biological activity as indicated by earthworms was greater with no-till and poultry litter (PL). In all but the very driest year, yields of cotton and corn increased on average 10–27% with no-till and 32–42% with combination of no-till and PL. On the other hand soil nutrient accumulation, particularly P and Zn from long-term use of poultry litter in corn production, reached excessive levels and could present environmental risks. Drainage increased in no-till raising the risk of leaching of nutrients into the soil profile. However, runoff decreased in no-till and the presence of a rye cover crop during the winter reduced the leaching losses of N compared to no cover crop. During cotton production under relative drought, no-till and poultry litter led to somewhat elevated dissolved phosphorus concentration in runoff, and fluometuron was detected in runoff and drainage while pendimethalin was not. Fecal indicator bacteria (Escherichia coli and fecal enterococci), and the hormones estradiol and testosterone were observed in drainage and runoff but concentrations were similar across all treatments. By conducting the study for an extended period under natural environmental conditions, we were able to highlight real risks and potentials of the contrasting cropping systems. While 6 out of 14 years of relative drought might have limited the water quality response of treatments, such droughts are common features of the weather pattern in the region. Even then, use of no-till as the predominant tillage system was supported by improved yields. Fertilizer management, especially crop N need-based use of PL, requires closer monitoring to insure that production advantages of no-till and poultry litter are not offset by concerns with environmental risks. Long-term research requires sustained resource inputs to answer critical questions of environmental risk and emerging unknown issues.     

Soya protein products for institutional feeding systems

This paper deals with aspects of the production and use of soybeans in Brazil, and the contribution by the Instituto de Tecnologia de Alimentos, ITAL, to the research and development of popular institutionalized products, based on soybeans. Two programs for food supplementation, one on a national level, and the other on a regional level, are described. All the products utilized contain soybeans as a protein source, and are directed at 6-to-14-yr-olds. The paper also describes products that the food industry has commercialized for the official institutional programs, industrial and hospital restaurants. The report also shows the results of a campaign to increase the use of soybeans by the population.     

Genetic improvement of grain legumes of importance to Latin American diet and the soy bean

Common beans and soybeans can be considered as the most important food legumes in the Latin American nutritional context, each of them presenting specific problems. The production of common beans has not increased in the last decade, and insects and diseases attacks are menacing it. On the other hand, soybeans have shown a tremendous increase in production, becoming rapidly an important export cash crop. However, its use in human consumption is quite restricted, in spite of the efforts of some countries in inducing their acceptance. As far as nutritive value is concerned, a high variability for protein and methionine contents have been evidenced, and breeding programs could use this factor advantageously. In the case of soybeans, the use of germ plasm with colored seeds appears to be a good alternative, due to the preference for color by the consumers. Considering the agricultural production policies of some of our countries, there is a need to establish a proper balance between the cash and energetic crops, and the staple food crops, in order to avoid an aggravation of the nutritional problems in this Continent.     

Using hydrophilic polymers to improve uptake of manganese fertilizers by soybeans

Manganese deficiency in soybeans (Glycine max (L.) Merr.) is a common problem in many parts of the world. Recent research has demonstrated that the addition of gel-forming hydrophilic polymers with plant nutrients may enhance the availability and effectiveness of some soil-applied nutrients. This greenhouse study was designed to determine if the addition of hydrated cross-linked polyacrylamide polymers could increase plant recovery of commonly used Mn fertilizers by soybeans. Four Mn sources (MnO, MnSO₄·4H₂O, MnCl₂, and MnEDTA) were band applied at two concentrations to a low-Mn soil with and without one of two polymers. Addition of either polymer alone or MnO had no effect on leaf or stem Mn concentration, but when MnSO₄·4H₂O, MnCl₂, or MnEDTA were added with a polymer, leaf Mn accumulation swere increased an average of 89%, compared with those Mn sources applied alone. Plant accumulation of Mn from MnO was no greater than the control treatment and uptake was not increased following the addition of polymer. At the conclusion of the experiment, the polymers were still hydrated and the fertilizer band contained an abundance of roots. The use of a hydrophilic polymer with soluble Mn fertilizers appears to enhance the recovery by plants and may lead to lower Mn application rates or perhaps less frequent applications.     

Phospholipids from palm-pressed fiber

Palm-pressed fiber, a by-product of palm oil milling, was extracted successively with hexane and 95% ethanol; the ethanol extracts yielded 46,800 ppm of phospholipids. The phospholipid composition, as analyzed by HPLC coupled with an ELSD, was found to be predominantly PC, PE, phosphatidylglycerol, and PA; as expected, the FA were more unsaturated than the TAG. Palm-pressed fiber is estimated to be able to provide 21,645 tonnes of palm lecithin based on the present total world production of fresh fruit bunches and thus be an alternative source of lecithin, which is normally obtained from soybeans.     

Long-term soybean composition patterns and their effect on processing

Soybean protein and oil data from eight years of national surveys showed Western Corn Belt soybeans to consistently be one percentage point lower in protein than soybeans from the rest of the nation. There was year-to-year vasiability in protein patterns among other regions. Oil percentages were more variable than protein percentages among different years. Except for the far northern states, which typically produce low protein soybeans, improvement and stabilization of oil content would produce the most certain increases in processor yields. Increased protein would be valuable only if soybean meal were priced to reward protein content in excess of specifications.