Characterization of radial bending properties of cork

The behaviour of cork under three point bending stress in the radial direction was evaluated in relation to porosity (range 2.0?C15.4%) and density (range 0.160?C0.220?g?cm^?3). The study was made using water-boiled cork planks of two commercial quality classes (good and poor quality) collected at an industrial mill. Cork samples were cut with the largest dimension in two directions, axial and tangential, and with the load zone in the inner part and the outer part of the plank. The stress-strain curves obtained in bending were similar for the different test specimens and similar to those observed for tensile tests in cork but the mechanical resistance of cork in bending was higher than in tension and lower than in compression. The direction of the internal stress in samples submitted to bending was a highly significant factor of variation. The curves showed an initial linear elastic region with a mean Young??s modulus of 14?MPa for the tangential direction and 21?MPa for the axial direction, followed by a region of a gradual cork yielding up to a peak load, and failure at an average stress of 1.2?MPa and a strain of 14%. There was significant difference in the bending properties of cork samples obtained from cork planks of different quality classes. Density and porosity were not individually well correlated with the mechanical parameters. It was however possible to model Young??s modulus by combining porosity and density.     

Volltr?nkung modifizierten Holzes mit Wachs

Acetylated timber, thermally modified timber (TMT) and timber modified with dimethylol-dihydroxy-ethylenurea (DMDHEU) was impregnated with wax. Subsequently, the influence of hydrophobic wax deposits on the capillary water uptake and the strength properties of the pre- modified timber were investigated. The water uptake in longitudinal direction decreased to 0.03?kg?m^?2?h^?0.5 for acetylated timber and 0.13?kg?m^?2?h^?0.5 for TMT. In tangential direction it was reduced to 0.02?kg?m^?2?h^?0.5 (acetylated wood) and 0.05?kg?m^?2?h^?0.5 (TMT). Thus, water uptake of acetylated timber was lowered by a maximum of factor 28 in longitudinal and factor 9 in tangential direction. For TMT, water uptake was reduced by factor 12 in both directions. For both cases, the pre-modified material without wax treatment was measured as reference. The bending and impact bending strength of TMT increased by a maximum of up to 45% and 64%, respectively. The Brinell hardness perpendicular to the grain rose by up to 420%. Consequently, strength losses due to thermal modification were partly compensated by subsequent wax impregnation. The compression strength increased by up to 47% and the modulus of elasticity by up to 66% for acetylated timber. For the same material, the hardness perpendicular to the grain peaked at 109?N/mm². The longitudinal water uptake of timber modified with DMDHEU decreased by a maximum of 45% after impregnation with wax, whereas Brinell hardness perpendicular to the grain increased by 150%. Besides diminished water uptake, a reinforcement of wood structure degraded after preceding modification can be accomplished by wax treatment.     

Influence of heat pressure steaming (HPS) on the mechanical and physical properties of common oak wood

Common oak (Quercus robur) was thermally treated applying a heat pressure steaming procedure. Physical and mechanical properties of treated and untreated samples were investigated extensively. Swelling, water absorption, water vapour resistance, porosity and thermal conductivity were tested and the mechanical properties of tensile, bending and compression strength and of Young’s modulus (static and dynamic) as well as Poisson’s ratio and shear modulus were determined. The tests were carried out in the standard climate 20 °C and 65 % relative humidity and also in all three anatomical main directions: longitudinal, radial and tangential. The equilibrium moisture content at 20 °C and 65 % relative humidity for HPS (heat pressure steamed) oak (determined in adsorption test) was 6.7 % and for untreated oak 9.1 %. Swelling in longitudinal direction was not affected: a reduction of 17 and 10 % could be observed in radial and tangential direction, respectively. The porosity of the treated samples was 53.9 % in comparison to the untreated samples with 51.0 %. The thermal conductivity depending on the modification procedure changed only slightly which was related to the different densities of the samples. The water vapour resistance of the modified samples increases compared to the untreated samples. The values are double (dry-cup) respectively three times (wet-cup) higher than those of the reference samples. The elastic properties were not influenced by heat pressure steaming. The MOE does not show a significant change depending on the treatment. Bending and tensile strength of HPS oak decrease. In longitudinal direction, the tensile strength drops by 26 % and the bending strength by 25 %.     

三维编织复合材料T型梁的低温场弯曲性能

为研究三维编织复合材料T型梁低温环境下的弯曲力学性能,以指导耐低温抗弯曲三维编织复合材料结构设计,采用真空辅助树脂传递模塑成型工艺制备不同筋高高度三维编织复合材料T型梁,自制低温环境箱,与MTS 810.23型材料测试系统相结合测试三维编织复合材料T型梁在不同低温下的弯曲力学性能。结果表明:随测试温度的降低,三维编织复合材料T型梁载荷增加,位移增大,能量吸收增加;随筋高高度的增加,三维编织复合材料T型梁载荷增加,位移减小,能量吸收增加,抗弯刚度增强;三维编织复合材料T型梁由较高温度下不同程度的屈服断裂转变为低温下的脆性断裂,随着筋高高度增加,失效模式由弯曲失效转变为剪切失效。     

改性聚乙烯醇纤维增强水泥基复合材料制备及其力学性能

为提高聚乙烯醇(PVA)纤维与水泥基体间的界面强度,采用化学接枝法在PVA纤维表面接枝一层纳米二氧化硅颗粒(SiO₂ NPs),制备改性PVA纤维增强水泥基复合材料(PVA-FRCC)。通过三点弯曲试验测试改性前后PVA-FRCC的抗弯强度,并研究纤维铺排方向和层数对水泥基复合材料抗弯性能的影响。结果表明:纤维交叉铺排时,PVA-FRCC的抗弯强度优于纵向和横向铺排,且改性PVA-FRCC的抗弯强度高于未改性PVA-FRCC的;当纤维铺排层数为3层时,改性PVA-FRCC的抗弯强度最好。对PVA-FRCC的弯曲过程进行有限元模拟分析,含有横向铺排纤维的PVA-FRCC断裂失效时,纤维的桥连作用突显。同时,交叉铺排的PVA-FRCC中除横向铺排的纤维承力外,纵向纤维也有一定的承力,且试样失效后无界面损伤。     

锯齿形三维机织间隔复合材料的弯曲性能

为解决层合间隔复合材料易开裂和整体性差的问题,采用绿色环保的玄武岩低捻长丝作为经、纬纱,合理设计经向截面图和组织图,并在普通织机上织造3种不同间隔高度的锯齿形三维机织间隔织物。以所织得的锯齿形三维机织间隔织物作为增强材料,环氧乙烯基树脂作为基体,利用真空辅助成型工艺,制备锯齿形三维机织间隔复合材料,同时对三维机织间隔复合材料进行三点弯曲性能测试,得到弯曲载荷-位移曲线、能量吸收图和破坏模式。结果表明:复合材料的纬向是主要承力方向;组织循环个数越多的材料表现出更好的弯曲性能;在一定间隔高度范围内,间隔高度越高的锯齿形三维机织间隔织物承受的弯曲载荷和吸收的能量也越高;锯齿形三维机织间隔复合材料的破坏模式是材料上表层受压,下表层受拉,而连接层受压;在作用力下材料只是出现明显的变形,但并未出现材料整体的破坏。     

Feuchtigkeitsabhängigkeit des Elastizitätsmoduls thermisch modifizierter und nativer Fichte (Picea abies (L.) Karst.)

The modulus of elasticity of weakly thermally modified as well as native twin samples of spruce was determined at different air humidity levels. Within the range of 0 and 93% of relative humidity a higher modulus of elasticity could be proven for thermally modified samples than for native comparison samples. The functional interrelation between modulus of elasticity and wood moisture admitted for native woods could be confirmed for modified twin samples.     

Mechanical properties of thermally modified beech timber for structural purposes

The use of thermally modified timber for structural purposes is of increasing interest. In order to guarantee sufficient reliability in terms of load bearing capacity and fitness for use the strength and stiffness properties of this modified wood have to be assessed. Industrially produced, thermally modified structural timber members made of beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) were subject of the tests presented in this paper. Bending, tension parallel and perpendicular to grain and compression parallel and perpendicular to grain properties were determined. The derived mechanical properties were benchmarked to the European EN 338 strength class system for structural timber. It turned out that the used strong thermal treatment of the raw material resulted in a significant reduction of most of the strength properties. However, stiffness properties were not affected. In particular the strength properties perpendicular to grain suffered a lot due to the thermal modification whereas compression strength parallel to grain was unchanged. The main drawbacks found along the experiments were a pronounced brittle behaviour of the specimens and big variations in strength. For the determination of strength values it is proposed not to use correlations as provided in European standards but to test and state these properties discretely. On the basis of these results a general use of strongly thermally modified beech as structural timber cannot be recommended. However, for selected purposes, like e.g., for structural fa?ade elements or for columns, the use of this material might be an option.     

FRP-水泥砂浆抗弯性能的研究

利用三点弯研究了水泥砂浆外贴碳纤维和芳纶纤维片材后的抗弯性能,并对2种纤维进行表面处理,探讨纤维的表面处理对FRP水泥砂浆体系抗弯性能的影响。结果表明,用等离子体分别对碳纤维和芳纶纤维进行表面处理,CFRP和AFRP水泥砂浆的最大断裂载荷都能显著提高,而且构件在受弯过程中没有发生剥离破坏,FRP被拉断,纤维高强的特点得到充分发挥。     

三维六向编织SiCf/SiC复合材料的力学行为及其损伤机制

为解决陶瓷基复合材料在服役过程中因拉伸和弯曲导致的失效问题,以三维六向编织SiC_f/SiC复合材料为研究对象,分析了受力过程中复合材料力学行为与纤维及结构的联系机制。采用微计算机断层扫描技术获得材料结构及孔隙的三维图像,对复合材料纵向和横向进行拉伸、弯曲性能测试,并阐明其损伤机制。结果表明:复合材料呈现明显的各向异性特性,纵向拉伸强度和弯曲强度分别是横向的10.37、5.06倍;复合材料不同方向受力的损伤模式不同,拉伸载荷下纵向试样裂纹沿着六向纱呈Z字形扩展,而横向试样裂纹沿着编织轴向扩展,最终导致拉伸破坏;弯曲载荷下裂纹沿着厚度方向扩展,并最终导致纵向及横向试样的韧性断裂,且纵向韧性优于横向。     

三维正交机织复合材料的冲后压缩性能

为揭示纱线张力对三维机织复合材料抗冲击及冲后压缩性能的影响规律,基于多剑杆织造工艺,配置不同接结纱张力(25、50、100 cN)织造三维正交机织物,通过真空辅助树脂传递模塑成型工艺制备复合材料,并在室温下进行低速冲击及冲后压缩性能测试。结果表明：当接结纱张力为100 cN时,试样在冲击载荷下发生表层树脂大面积破裂和剥离并使纬纱失去支撑,同时,试样表层纬纱发生较大卷曲,促使压缩载荷发生屈曲失效;接结纱张力为100 cN试样的压缩性能相比接结纱张力为25 cN试样下降约50%;接结纱张力较高时易导致纬纱卷曲增大和树脂富集,并由此降低试样的弯曲刚度和冲后压缩性能。     

Neuere Erfahrungen mit nativer und modifizierter Sorghumstärke

Recent Experiences on Native and Modified Sorghum Starch . The investigators aimed at characterizing native and modified sorghum starch not only by a number of physicochemical data but also by techniques of paper chromatography in order to gain more insight into the composition of the polysaccharide material. The native starch samples, treated with sodium phosphate and acid and modified by different temperatures yielded useful results on the basis of paper capillary and paper separation analyses which led to a better understanding of their behaviour and enabled further characterization of the sorghum starch material.     

Mechanical and fracture properties for predicting cracking in semi-sweet biscuits

Mechanical and fracture properties required for predicting crack development in semi‐sweet (‘rich tea’) biscuits have been experimentally determined. Pilot‐scale biscuits of different fat concentrations were prepared and studied with commercial biscuits at different moisture contents. Bending modulus, fracture stress and strain were measured using three‐point bending tests. All biscuit types showed considerable dependence on moisture content over a range of 4–12%. Young's modulus and failure stress showed a uniform decrease and failure strain showed an increase with increasing moisture content. For pilot‐scale biscuits of different fat concentrations, an increase in fat level caused a decrease in modulus and failure stress values; however, the failure strains were very similar for all the fat types. The testing of the samples with top surface up and top surface down revealed that the sample orientation does not affect the measured parameters. The measured parameters also did not show any directional dependence within the plane, thus assuring that the assumption of an isotropic material would be valid for modelling. The mechanical and fracture properties measured in this study will serve as a very useful set of data to predict the stress state and cracking of the checked biscuits.     

Modelling deformation and fracture in confectionery wafers

The aim of this research is to model the deformation and fracture behaviour of brittle wafers often used in chocolate confectionery products. Three point bending and compression experiments were performed on beam and circular disc samples respectively to determine the ‘apparent’ stress-strain curves in bending and compression. The deformation of the wafer for both these testing types was observed in-situ within an SEM. The wafer is modelled analytically and numerically as a composite material with a core which is more porous than the skins. X-ray tomography was used to generate a three dimensional volume of the wafer microstructure which was then meshed and used for quantitative analysis. A linear elastic material model, with a damage function and element deletion, was used and the XMT generated architecture was loaded in compression. The output from the FE simulations correlates closely to the loaddisplacement deformation observed experimentally.     

Swelling restraint of thermally modified ash wood perpendicular to the grain

The paper reports on creep of ash wood (Fraxinus excelsior L.) thermally modified at 180 and 200 °C, and subsequently subjected to compression in tangential and radial directions and simultaneously wetted, from the moisture content (MC) of 6% to above the fibre saturation point (FSP). The compressing load made 0.00, 0.25, 0.50 and 0.75 of impact stress at the proportional limit (R_c). The compression stress needed to restrain the swelling of wood, the so-called swelling pressure, was indirectly determined from isochrones of mechano-sorptive creep. The most important finding was that thermal modification reduces the strain of ash wood subjected to compression perpendicular to the grain to a degree proportional to the mass loss. The compression stress needed to restrain the swelling of thermally modified wood is ca. 10 and 20% smaller in the tangential and radial directions, respectively. This effect leads to a reduction in the anisotropy of swelling pressure of thermally modified wood perpendicular to the grain. Moreover, although upon thermal modification the mass loss of wood takes place, at the MC of 6% it shows practically the same modulus of elasticity (MOE) and Rc as the unmodified wood. After wetting to MC higher than the FSP, the thermally modified wood at 200 °C shows significantly higher MOE and Rc than the wood modified at 180 °C and untreated wood. Reduction of wood hygroscopicity, an inevitable effect of thermal modification, also reduces the range of changes in mechanical properties of wood caused by the increase in its MC to the FSP.     

糙米正面破碎特性与裂纹扩展规律

目的:研究碾米室中糙米破碎特性。方法:利用万能材料试验机进行糙米力学试验,通过数字显微镜观察糙米中裂纹及其扩展变化。结果:糙米受力时会经历屈服阶段与强化阶段的交替过程,直至断裂;在挤压载荷作用下,内部微孔洞处产生裂纹,裂纹的快速扩展造成了米粒破碎或断裂,在三点弯曲和剪切载荷下,糙米从支撑端底面产生裂纹,并扩展至正面;糙米的抗挤压变形能力最大、抗三点弯曲变形能力次之、抗剪切变形能力最小;与挤压载荷相比,糙米在三点弯曲和剪切载荷下的破碎强度和破碎能较小。结论:在对碾米机结构进行设计时,要尽量减少弯曲、剪切作用对糙米的影响;同等条件下,粳型糙米的力学特性优于籼型糙米。     

Wedge splitting experiments on three-layered particleboard and consequences for cutting

Three layered particleboard is a widely used and important plate material used for construction and furniture production. This implies that material parameters such as strength and elasticity in bending are determined. However, usually little or nothing is known about the fracture properties. This paper has the goal to investigate the material fracture properties in the three layers and discuss the linear and non-linear fracture mechanical properties with regard to board production and its consequences for cutting. It could be shown that the fracture properties of the solid boards are dominated by the bigger chips in the core of the plate and the fracture properties of boards are best characterized by the specific fracture energy. The linear elastic- and the non-linear elastic fracture mechanics approach of the outer layers shows essentially similar results, represented by brittle fracture. For the prediction of the cutting performance, linear elastic fracture mechanics parameters are considered to be more appropriate because these parameters describe the limit of linear elastic behaviour and therefore the case of smallest deformation zone. High stress concentration at the tool tip and low permanent deformation in the bulk material give the best cutting quality.     

Analysis of flexural strength of preoxidized fiber-reinforced composites made by a nonwoven process and hot-pressing

Preoxidized fiber was used here as a reinforcement for the first time. Polypropylene fiber was used as resin matrix, and the preform with the two types of fiber was prepared by a nonwoven process. Then, hot-pressing was applied to make a treatment for the preform, and the thermoplastic composites reinforced with preoxidized fiber were prepared. The effects of the hot-pressing temperature, hot-pressing pressure, weight percentage of preoxidized fiber, and nonwoven process on bending failure strength along the machine direction (MD) and transverse direction (CD) were studied under a three-point bending load. It was concluded that the flexural strength of the composites along MD and CD decreases with increasing hot-pressing temperature and hot-pressing pressure, while an initial increase and then decrease was observed with the increase in the weight percentage of preoxidized fiber. However in both directions, flexural strength of the composites is influenced significantly by the nonwoven process. Finally, the bending failure mode of the composites generated micro-flaws, which can be observed on the center surface of the composites. The micro-flaws extend to the ends along the thickness direction of the composites, and plastic bending failure is observed due to partial delamination.     

Reliability of proof-loaded Norway spruce

Strength grading of structural timber is a prerequisite for the use of timber in load-bearing constructions. The grading methods used in production today are mainly based on estimation of the modulus of elasticity (MOE) determined from measurements of either flatwise bending stiffness or resonant vibrations. By using proof-loading techniques, the yield can be increased and the reliability of the graded material can be improved. Unfortunately, this technique can cause damage to some of the graded material. This paper deals with the quantification and severity of damage caused by proof-loading of Norway spruce (Picea abies) timber. A total of 410 specimens were loaded in cyclic bending with increasing load level in each cycle until failure. The maximum loads during the tests were compared to the failure loads of a reference sample. If the failure load was lower than the maximum load, the specimen was assumed to have been damaged in the previous load-cycle and was defined as a rogue. The technique used is similar to the technique used for example in Australia. The results obtained fit well with the results obtained from Australian species. Examination of the MOE indicates no damage in the specimens at stress levels below 75% of the strength. Damage is in this case defined as a decrease in the MOE. Regarding Norway spruce grown in Sweden it can be concluded that the problem of damage due to proof-loading is small for timber graded to strength classes C24 or C30. For both classes the number of rogues can be expected to be less than 5%. For timber graded to higher strength classes the problem of damage due to proof-loading will increase.     

Analytical cracking load estimation of Laminated Veneer Lumber (LVL) beams with holes

Predicting the load-carrying capacity of timber beams with holes cannot be performed by usual analysis methods if the failure of the beam is governed by the crack initiation and propagation around the hole at low load levels. Predicting the cracking load is an important design issue because it corresponds to the load-carrying capacity of the timber beam before the crack propagation. One of the models that can be used for the fracture formulation is that of a beam on elastic foundation. In this model a part of the beam is assumed to follow the conditions of beam with elastic foundation which has spring stiffness equal to the fracture properties of the material in the crack surface. Based on beam on elastic foundation model, the cracking load prediction is the target of the paper. Some closed form solutions for the beam with hole are presented. The formulation has been derived for two cases of pure shear and pure bending moment. Finally a semi-empirical formulation for combination of shear and bending moment in the section is presented. The model predictions are compared with the results of an experimental program showing good correlation. The analytical model can therefore be proposed for future revisions of codes of practice such as the Eurocode 5.