“I want to be different from others in cyberspace” The role of visual similarity in virtual group identity

The present study investigated the impact of the visual similarity shared among virtual group members on group identity and conformity. In achieving this goal, the current study distinguished the similarity coming from being in the same experimental group (i.e., transient group membership) and the similarity coming from the same social group membership (i.e., lasting group membership), in response to the critique that these two group memberships have not been set apart in previous computer-mediated group research. The current study also attended to the fact that previous research on computer-mediated groups restricted personality traits that might have affected group identity formation and conformity in virtual groups. In response to this constraint, the present study included participants’ needs to be different from others (NFU) and needs for inclusion (ISC) to a hypothesized path model that was founded on the SIDE model. Furthermore, the author examined whether the same hypothesized path model could uphold across the differentiated levels of similarity shared among group members.     

A new perspective on de-individuation via computer-mediated communication

Research examining de-individuation via computer-mediated communication (CMC) suggests that group pressure is more pronounced in CMC-using groups than in groups meeting face to face, because CMC strips away non-verbal cues and makes individuals feel more similar to the others in their group. Similarly, electronic voting research suggests that group influence is more pronounced via group support systems when the opinions of others are communicated in real time. However, recent research involving complete anonymity suggests that group influence is mitigated via anonymous CMC because of a lack of awareness of others. Thus, we propose that increased group influence is facilitated when others’ opinions are communicated, and is heightened with the common identity created through the use of nominal labels. This paper reports the results of a laboratory experiment involving groups making an organization decision via a text-based chat room. The results show that a simple electronic voting interface element increased the amount of group influence on individual members, and led to decreased participation and higher dispensability.     

The effect of uniform virtual appearance on conformity intention: Social identity model of deindividuation effects and optimal distinctiveness theory

This study integrates social identity model of deindividuation effects (SIDE) and optimal distinctiveness theory (ODT) in investigating the effect of uniform virtual appearance on individuals’ willingness to conform to a majority opinion in computer-mediated groups. SIDE posits that sharing the same visual cue can promote group identification process and eventually induce stronger conformity. Meanwhile, ODT indicates that too much visual similarity rather concerns individuals about their deprived uniqueness, so they would be reluctant to conform to a majority opinion as a way to restore their uniqueness. This study concurs with previous research based on SIDE by showing that group identification induced by uniform appearance increases conformity intention. It also showed that perceived deindividuation, another variable that is induced by a high level of visual similarity relative to others, decreases conformity intention. As a result, the current study shows that the effect of virtual uniform appearance on conformity intention is inconsistently mediated by group identification and perceived deindividuation.     

Equality of participation and influence in groups: The effects of communication medium and sex composition

We tested the claim that computer-mediated communication (CMC) is more egalitarian than face-to-face (FTF) communication by studying patterns of reported participation and influence in 30 FTF and 30 synchronous CMC groups over seven weeks. Twenty-two of these groups were composed of a majority of males or females; these were used to test effects of communication medium and sex composition on relative levels of participation and influence among group members. Competing predictions were derived from three theories: proportional theory, social role theory, and expectation states theory. Results indicated that CMC participation was perceived as more centralized than was FTF participation in groups' first meetings, but as similar for the remaining six meetings. Results revealed no or weak support for any of the competing theories of sex composition. Influence was perceived as most centralized in CMC majority-male groups and in FTF majority-female groups. In CMC groups, males in majority-female groups were perceived as having more influence than their female group members, whereas males in majority-male groups were perceived as having less influence than their female group members. In FTF groups, the ratio of male-to-female influence in majority-male and majority-female groups did not differ significantly. Implications of these findings and the need for additional longitudinal research are discussed.     

Social gaming is inSIDE: Impact of anonymity and group identity on performance in a team game-based learning environment

The present experiment aimed to determine how quiz performance in a team game-based learning environment can be predicted from the Social Identity model of Deindividuation Effects (SIDE). According to this model, anonymity influences social behavior by accentuating the salience of group identity and reducing interpersonal differences, leading to greater group identification and motivation to work for one's own group. As these effects could lead to higher cognitive performance, the goal of the present research was to extend predictions based on the SIDE model on performance in online game-based learning environments. After measuring their prior computing knowledge, 343 Master Degree students were placed in virtual teams on a trivial criterion to perform a series of online quizzes about computing and the Internet. An anonymous (or individuated) username was attributed to each team member to connect to the online learning environment, and information about comparison between teams was used to manipulate the degree of salience of group identity (high versus low). As predicted by the SIDE model, anonymity boosted performance when group identity was salient, but only for students with low prior knowledge. Unexpectedly, it was also found that anonymity boosted the performance of students with high prior knowledge when group identity was not salient. A similar pattern was found for perceived mastery of computing and the Internet. Theoretical and practical implications of the SIDE model are discussed, and specifically its application to social gaming to optimize online learning.     

Overcoming social awareness in computer-supported groups

We examined status effects in face-to-face and computer-mediated three-person groups. Our expectation that low status members in computer-mediated group discussions would participate more equally, and have more influence over decisions, than their counterparts in face-to-face groups was not confirmed. The results suggest that knowledge of status differences and labels were used to form cognitive impressions of other group members. It seems that when group members are aware of the status characteristics of the group, social cues were magnified rather than redüced. Implications of these findings for mixed status cooperative work groups and for the design of computer communication systems are discussed.     

A reexamination of deindividuation in synchronous computer-mediated communication

Classical deindividuation theory has been posited as a useful framework for understanding certain cognitive and behavioral changes commonly seen in computer-mediated communication (CMC). Participants in CMC discussion groups were significantly more immersed in the discussion than face-to-face (FTF) discussants, and tended not to perceive their team members as individuals, providing evidence that the CMC users met the cognitive criteria for a state of deindividuation. Nevertheless, CMC participants did not produce more negative behaviors than FTF participants, demonstrating that it is insufficient to attribute negative behavior solely to a deindividuated state. These results are discussed in light of classical deindividuation theory and are contrasted with predictions from the more recent social identity/deindividuation model.     

The development of group identity in computer and face-to-face groups with membership change

A three-part conception of group identity is proposed that draws on common fate, cohesiveness, and cognitive views of group identity. The changing contribution of these three components to group identity was examined for 31 original and 29 reconfigured groups which met for 7 consecutive weeks using either face-to-face (FIF) or computer-mediated communication (CMC). Group identity was consistently lower for computer-mediated groups, and this effect was stronger in the reconfigured groups. In the original groups, group identity started high and declined for both FTF and CMC groups. In the reconfigured groups, developmental patterns differed from those of the original groups, and also differed by communication medium. Individual differences accounted for a substantial amount of variance in group identity across original and reconfigured groups.     

Incivility and Political Identity on the Internet: Intergroup Factors as Predictors of Incivility in Discussions of News Online

Although incivility is an increasing concern among scholars and the public, explanations for this phenomenon sometimes overlook the role of computer‐mediated communication. Drawing from the social identity model of deindividuation effects (SIDE), we consider incivility as a form of identity performance occurring in the visually anonymous contexts that are typical online. Specifically, we examine partisan political identities and intergroup factors as predictors of incivility in a newspaper discussion forum. Contrary to expectations, conservatives were less likely to be uncivil as the proportion of ingroup members (i.e., other conservatives) in the discussion increased and less sensitive to incivility directed at outgroup members (i.e., liberals) than were nonconservatives. Audience members had more extreme evaluations of uncivil comments made by partisans than nonpartisans.     

Computer-mediated communication,de-individuation and group decision-making

This paper discusses social psychological processes in computer-mediated communication (CMC) and group decision-making, in relation to findings that groups communicating via computer produce more polarized decisions than face-to-face groups. A wide range of possible explanations for such differences have been advanced, in which a lack of social cues, disinhibition, “de-individuation” and a consequent tendency to antinormative behaviour are central themes. In these explanations, both disinhibition and greater equality of participation are thought to facilitate the exchange of extreme persuasive arguments, resulting in polarization. These accounts are briefly reviewed and attention is drawn to various problematic issues. We provide an alternative model and explanation based on social identity (SI) theory and a re-conceptualization of de-individuation, which takes into account the social and normative factors associated with group polarization. Predictions from both sets of explanations are explored empirically by means of an experiment manipulating the salience of the discussion group, and de-individuation operationalized as the isolation and anonymity of the participants. In this experiment we were able to partial out the effects of the CMC technology which have confounded comparisons with face-to-face interaction in previous research. The results challenge the explanations based on persuasive arguments, while being consistent with our SI model. We discuss our approach in relation to other very recent research in group computer-mediated communication and offer a reinterpretation of previous findings.     

Group identification as a mediator of the effect of players’ anonymity on cheating in online games

This study aims to add to the discussion about the applicability of the classical deindividuation theory and social identity model of deindividuation effects (SIDE) in explaining online behaviours. It explores the effect of anonymity in facilitating social influence of group identity in online game cheating. A nationally representative survey was conducted face to face. Results from the survey administered in Singapore confirm predictions derived from the SIDE and challenge the classical deindividuation theory. Specifically, it was concluded that the frequency of gaming with online strangers (anonymous gaming) significantly predicted the frequency of cheating in online games. The effect of anonymity on game cheating was found to be significantly mediated by the group identification with online gaming communities/groups. Gender differences were found. Male gamers cheated more frequently than female gamers. Female gamers are more likely to cheat as a consequence of group identification than male gamers. Implications and future research are discussed.     

Social anxiety and computer-mediated communication during initial interactions: Implications for the hyperpersonal perspective

The study examined how the reduced nonverbal cues characteristic of computer-mediated communication (CMC) moderated the potentially negative interpersonal outcomes of social anxiety in initial interactions. Hypotheses predicted that CMC would mitigate the extent to which social anxiety caused interpersonal perceptions of anxiety and that CMC would attenuate the negative association between one’s social anxiety and one’s partner’s conversational satisfaction. A sample (N = 206) of undergraduate students were paired in unacquainted dyads and then engaged in initial interaction conversations in either a face-to-face (FtF) or CMC context. The researchers measured social anxiety before the conversation and a number of outcomes after the conversation. The results revealed that CMC is a significant contingent condition to the association between social anxiety and one’s partner’s perception of this anxiety and a contingent condition to the association between social anxiety and one’s partner’s conversational satisfaction.     

Computer-mediated communication and the reduction of prejudice: A controlled longitudinal field experiment among Jews and Arabs in Israel

The promise of computer-mediated communication (CMC) to reduce intergroup prejudice has generated mixed results. Theories of CMC yield alternative and mutually exclusive explanations about mechanisms by which CMC fosters relationships online with potential to ameliorate prejudice. This research tests contact-hypothesis predictions and two CMC theories on multicultural, virtual groups who communicated during a yearlong online course focusing on educational technology. Groups included students from the three major Israeli education sectors—religious Jews, secular Jews, and Muslims—who completed pretest and posttest prejudice measures. Two sets of control subjects who did not participate in virtual groups provided comparative data. An interaction of the virtual groups experience × religious/cultural membership affected prejudice toward different religious/cultural target groups, by reducing prejudice toward the respective outgroups for whom the greatest initial enmity existed. Comparisons of virtual group participants to control subjects further support the influence of the online experience. Correlations between prejudice with group identification and with interpersonal measures differentiate which theoretical processes pertained.     

Does ‘cyber-conformity’ vary cross-culturally? Exploring the effect of culture and communication medium on social conformity

Previous research has established that individuals from collectivistic cultures tend to conform more than their counterparts from individualistic cultures do [Bond, R., & Smith, P.B. (1996). Culture and conformity: A meta-analysis of studies using Asch’s (1952b, 1956) line judgment task. Psychological Bulletin 119(1) 111–137]. However, there is presently a dearth of research exploring the degree to which this kind of cross-cultural difference is also present in computer-mediated communication (CMC) contexts where group members are never met face-to-face (f-t-f). A normative social influence paradigm of line-length judgment (based on Asch [Asch, S.E., (1955). Opinions and social pressure. Scientific American 193(5) 31–35]) was employed to investigate the effects of communication medium (f-t-f against CMC) and culture (participants from individualistic cultures against those from collectivist cultures). A communication type × culture interaction was found, in which the expected cultural differences were demonstrated only in the face-to-face conditions, being absent in computer-mediated conditions.     

The positive and negative implications of anonymity in Internet social interactions: “On the Internet, Nobody Knows You’re a Dog”

The growth of the Internet at a means of communication has sparked the interest of researchers in several fields (e.g. communication, social psychology, industrial-organizational psychology) to investigate the issues surrounding the expression of different social behaviors in this unique social context. Of special interest to researchers is the increased importance that anonymity seems to play in computer-mediated communication (CMC). This paper reviews the literature related to the issues of anonymity within the social context, particularly in CMC, demonstrating the usefulness of established social psychological theory to explain behavior in CMC and discussing the evolution of the current theoretical explanations in explaining the effects of anonymity in social behavior in CMC environments. Several suggestions for future research are proposed in an attempt to provide researchers with new avenues to investigate how anonymity can play both positive and negative roles in CMC.     

The influence of familiarity among group members,group atmosphere and assertiveness on uninhibited behavior through three different communication media

The study of the influence of new information technologies (NIT) on verbal communication has attracted attention from researchers. Results obtained in previous studies suggest that NIT communication media produce a deindividualization in group processes that enhances uninhibited behavior and flaming. However, identity theory emphasizes the role of social context, challenging the interpretation that features of the media are the main antecedent of this behavior. The aim of the present paper is threefold: (1) to empirically test whether there are significant differences in the frequency of uninhibited behavior in groups working under face-to-face, videoconference and computer-mediated communication; (2) to test whether familiarity among group members, group climate, assertiveness and their interactions significantly predict uninhibited behavior in groups, regardless of the communication media; and (3) to analyze whether communication media moderate the prediction of these variables on uninhibited behavior. Uninhibited behavior has been operationalized, distinguishing between informal speech and flaming. The experiment was carried out with 28 groups of five subjects each. Results show that informal speech and flaming present higher rates in computer mediated communication than in videoconference and face-to-face. Social familiarity among group members significantly predicts mild uninhibited behavior regardless of the medium, but does not account for flaming. Communication media moderate the prediction power of familiarity and its interaction with assertiveness and group climate on mild uninhibited behavior (informal speech). Results are discussed in relation to the alternative theories and models formulated.     

Dude,where’s my avacar? A mixed-method examination of communication in the driving context

Drivers who feel social closeness with other drivers tend to drive more safely, according to previous research. Given this, we examine how communication in the driving context influences social closeness, drawing from theories of computer-mediated communication, a context with notable similarities to the road. A survey study found that social closeness with others is associated with greater communication comfort and identity expression through the car, but less treatment of the car as a social entity. An interview study provides context and caveats for these generalizations. Together, these studies present implications for near-future social-mobility services relating to safety on the road.     

Gender and computer-mediated communication: group processes in problem solving

The study reports results from an experiment investigating aspects of communicative processes, using face-to-face (FtF) communication and computer-mediated communication (CMC). The latter was performed in two variants: participants writing under their own names or participants writing anonymously. There were two problems to be solved, both having ambiguous solutions. The theoretical aim was to determine if gender would influence communication equality, social relations, and communicative processes. Furthermore, private and public self-awareness was studied in order to identify differences between the media and between the sexes. The results show that participants discussing FtF were more private self-aware than participants in CMC, and females were more private self-aware than males. Females produced more messages in FtF communication than they did in CMC, and there were also more opinion change from females than from males. Social judgements were more positive from females than from males. A qualitative analysis showed that females expressed more opinions and agreements in FtF communication than in CMC, but also that they agreed more than males in responding to messages from a male. There were also more disagreements in FtF communication than in CMC.     

Social presence in distributed group environments: the role of social identity

This paper argues that to achieve social presence in a distributed environment, it is not necessary to emulate face-to-face conditions of increased cues to the interpersonal. Rather, it is argued, that a sense of belongingness to the group, or perceptual immersion in the group, can be realised through the creation of a shared social identity between group members. From this perspective, social presence is a function of the cognitive representation of the group by group members and not the interpersonal bonds between group members. Furthermore, specific design features and characteristics of the distributed learning environment can be utilised to achieve and maintain this shared group identity. This approach, encapsulated by the SIDE model, is discussed and supported by two case studies of distributed students, each consisting of 10 groups, collaborating for a period of 5 weeks on group projects.     

Effects of instructions on computer-mediated communication in single- or mixed-gender small task groups

This study extends recent studies of gender and computer-mediated communication (CMC) in work groups which found a pattern of relationships between group activity and gender composition that helps understand satisfaction and productivity. The following hypotheses are tested: (a) participants in groups receiving group development encouraging instructions will show higher levels of participation, group development, and satisfaction than participants in groups receiving standard e-mail etiquette instructions; and (b) across gender composition conditions, group development will be positively related to use of self-disclosure, opinion, and coalition building language, and inversely related to use of facts, argumentativeness, and coarse and abusive language. Generally, the first hypothesis was not supported. However, closer examination indicates that groups' “gendered” communication styles may have overridden the experimental procedure so this hypothesis may not have been adequately tested. The second hypothesis concerning the relationship between group development and use of specific communication patterns is supported. The ability of some participants to demonstrate successful socioemotional behaviors in the test-based CMC medium suggests the need to reexamine theories which propose that communication is determined solely by its medium. Rather than focusing on the characteristics of the medium, it might be more productive to focus on the characteristics of the communication to understand CMC in small task groups.