Infants at social risk: Relations among infant maltreatment, maternal behavior, and infant attachment behavior.

Fifty-six 12-mo-old infants, including 10 maltreated infants, 18 nonmaltreated high-risk infants, and 28 matched low-income controls, were videotaped in naturalistic settings at home with their mothers for 40 min and were observed 2 weeks later in the Ainsworth Strange Situation. Maltreating mothers were rated higher than nonmaltreating mothers on covertly hostile and interfering behaviors toward their infants at home. Maltreated infants were more avoidant of their mothers in the Strange Situation than nonmaltreated infants. Correlations between maternal behaviors at home and infant behaviors in the Strange Situation revealed that mothers whose infants displayed resistant behavior on reunion were rated at home as less verbally communicative and mothers whose infants displayed avoidant behavior on reunion were rated at home as more covertly hostile. Infants showing mixed avoidance and resistance were more likely to have extremely uncommunicative mothers than were infants who showed avoidance alone. Use of the behavioral rating scales for avoidance and resistance produced clearer findings than use of the final attachment classifications. Reasons for the discrepancies between analyses of classifications and analyses of behavior ratings were identified. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Maternal attachment representations, maternal sensitivity, and the infant–mother attachment relationship.

The role of maternal sensitivity as a mediator accounting for the robust association between maternal attachment representations and the quality of the infant-mother attachment relationship was examined. Sixty mother-infant dyads were observed at home and in the Strange Situation at 13 months, and mothers participated in the Adult Attachment Interview (AAI) within the next 6 months. A strong association was found between AAI and Strange Situation classifications. and autonomous mothers were more sensitive at home than were nonautonomous mothers. Mothers in secure relationships were more sensitive at home than mothers in nonsecure relationships. Likewise, infants in secure relationships were more secure as assessed by the Waters' Attachment Q sort than infants in nonsecure relationships. A test of the mediational model revealed that maternal sensitivity accounted for 17% of the relation between AAI and Strange Situation classifications. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Attachment relationships among children with aggressive behavior problems: The role of disorganized early attachment patterns.

Reviews attachment-related studies of early aggression to show that aggressive behavior toward peers is related to disorganized or controlling patterns of attachment behavior toward parents but not to avoidant or ambivalent patterns. Longitudinal attachment studies indicate that risk factors identified in cross-sectional studies of aggressive school-age children, such as family adversity, parental hostility, parental depression, and child cognitive deficits, are already evident in infancy and predictive of later aggression, before the onset of coercive child behavior. In infancy, these risk factors are associated with disorganized attachment behaviors toward the caregiver characterized by signs of fear or dysphoria, irresolvable conflict between opposing behavioral tendencies, and elevated cortisol levels after separation. Disorganized attachment behaviors, in turn, predict aggression in school-age children with other family factors controlled. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The effect of infant colic on maternal self-perceptions and mother-infant attachment

The 5-HT2A and 5-HT2C antagonists MDL 100,907 and SER-082 were tested with the 5-HT2A/C agonist DOI and the 5-HT1A/2A/2C agonist LSD in the Behavioral Pattern Monitor, which provides multiple measures of locomotor and investigatory activity. Previous investigations have shown that these measures load onto three independent behavioral factors: amount of activity, exploratory behavior, and behavioral organization. Rats pretreated with saline, MDL 100,907 (0.25-2.0 mg/kg), or SER-082 (0.5-1.0 mg/kg) were treated with saline, 0.25 mg/kg DOI, or 60 micrograms/kg LSD. All effects of DOI were blocked by all doses of MDL 100,907, but only by the highest dose of SER-082. While the effects of LSD on activity and exploratory behavior were largely unaffected, either pretreatment antagonized the effects of LSD on behavioral organization. Thus, all of these effects of DOI were attributable to 5-HT2A receptors, whereas the effect of LSD on behavioral organization was influenced by both 5-HT2A and 5-HT2C receptors.     

Domestic violence, maternal parenting, maternal mental health, and infant externalizing behavior.

This study examined whether maternal functioning mediated the relationship between domestic violence (DV) and infant externalizing behavior. Participants were 203 mother-infant dyads. Support was found for a partially mediated model in which maternal functioning mediated the relationship between current DV and infant externalizing behaviors. Past DV was directly associated with infants' externalizing behavior. Results suggest the need for early intervention and prevention efforts for families living with DV. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Mother's insightfulness regarding their infants' internal experience: Relations with maternal sensitivity and infant attachment.

This study examined the associations among mothers' insightfulness into their infants' internal experience, mothers' sensitivity to their infants' signals, and infants' security of attachment to their mothers. The insightfulness of 129 mothers of 12-month-old infants was assessed by showing mothers 3 videotaped segments of observations of their infants and themselves and interviewing them regarding their infants' and their own thoughts and feelings. Interviews were classified into 1 insightful and 3 noninsightful categories. Mothers' sensitivity was assessed during play sessions at home and at the laboratory, and infant-mother attachment was assessed with the Strange Situation. Mothers classified as positively insightful were rated as more sensitive and were more likely to have securely attached children than were mothers not classified as positively insightful. Insightfulness also accounted for variance in attachment beyond the variance explained by maternal sensitivity. These findings add an important dimension to research on caregiving, suggesting that mothers' seeking of explanations for the motives underlying their infants' behavior is related to both maternal sensitivity and infant attachment. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of attachment-based interventions on maternal sensitivity and infant attachment: Differential susceptibility of highly reactive infants.

The current intervention study aimed at breaking the potential intergenerational cycle of insecure attachment. The authors randomly assigned 81 first-time mothers to one of two intervention groups or a control group. The interventions involved four home visits when the infants were between 7 and 10 months old. The first intervention, VIPP, consisted of video-feedback and brochures to enhance sensitive parenting. The second intervention, VIPP-R, involved additional discussions of mothers' childhood attachment experiences in relation to their current caregiving. After the intervention, intervention mothers were more sensitive than control mothers. The interventions were most effective for highly reactive children and their mothers, providing experimental support for Belsky's (1997) hypothesis of highly reactive versus less reactive children's evolutionary based differential susceptibility to rearing influences. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Instability of infant–parent attachment security.

Data from 2 separate projects were examined to address the stability of infant–parent attachment security. Both included infant–mother attachment classifications at 12 and 18 mo of age (n?=?125, n?=?90), and 1 included infant–father classifications at 13 and 20 mo (n?=?120). Significant stability was not discerned in attachment security, either at the level of ABC or secure–insecure classifications. Rates of stability ranged from 46–55%. Results are discussed in terms of the select nature of the samples studied (all sons in 1, some depressed mothers in the other), the fact that past estimates of stability are based on small samples, the potential influence that coding for disorganized behavior may have on how Strange Situations are classified, and the changing ecology of infancy over the past 10–15 years. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

In utero exposure to terbutaline: effects on infant behavior and maternal self-esteem

OBJECTIVE: Little is known about correlates of infant behavior after tocolytic intervention. This study investigated three related questions: (a) Are there any behavioral differences in infants exposed in utero to terbutaline and infants not exposed? (b) Is the mother's perception of her infant influenced by group status? (c) Is maternal self-esteem influenced by group status? DESIGN: Group comparison over time of infants exposed in utero to terbutaline and infants not exposed. Group mean cluster scores and recovery curves were compared. Mothers' responses to a series of questionnaires were compared according to group status. The first author remained blind to group status until all measures were completed on all participants. SETTING: Recruitment and first administration of the Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale occurred in two regional hospitals, at Minneapolis and St. Paul. Subsequent administrations took place in the infants' homes. PARTICIPANTS: Forty-eight healthy, full-term (> or = 37 weeks gestational age) neonates and their mothers, 16 of whom had been given terbutaline, and 32 control subjects. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale was administered three times to each neonate. Mothers completed the Infant Characteristics Questionnaires, the Neonatal Perception Inventories, and the Maternal Self-Report Inventory. RESULTS: Significant differences were found between the two groups of infants on the habituation cluster at Time 1 and the autonomic stability cluster at Time 1 and Time 2. No significant group differences were found in the mothers' responses to the questionnaires. CONCLUSIONS: Nurses can assure parents that neonates exposed to terbutaline, although they may exhibit initial difficulties with behavioral organization, recover well over the course of the neonatal period. In addition, nurses can help mothers discover methods that will help calm their newborns.     

Early intervention in adoptive families: supporting maternal sensitive responsiveness, infant-mother attachment, and infant competence

Results from adoption studies suggest that adoptive families may experience special impediments with respect to the developmental progress and outcome of their children. Based on attachment theory, two early intervention programs were designed to support families in the Netherlands with an internationally adopted child. The intervention aimed at promoting maternal sensitive responsiveness, secure infant-mother attachment relationships, and infant exploratory competence. Ninety families with an interracially adopted infant (71 from Sri Lanka and 19 from Korea) were assigned to either a control group or one of two intervention groups. All of the children, 44 boys and 46 girls, were placed for adoption under the age of 5 months (M = 8 weeks). The first intervention group (N = 30) received a personal book, which focused on sensitive parenting. The second intervention group (N = 30) was provided with the same book as well as with three video-feedback sessions at their home. The control group (N = 30) did not receive intervention. In the control group sensitive responsiveness and security of attachment were comparable to outcomes from normative samples. The least intensive program, the personal book, did not bring about change in mothers or infants. In contrast, intervention effects were established upon maternal sensitive responsiveness, infant competence, and infant-mother attachment in the group that received both the book and video feedback.     

Are infant attachment patterns continuously or categorically distributed? A taxometric analysis of strange situation behavior.

Contemporary attachment research is based on the assumption that at least three types of infant attachment patterns exist: secure, avoidant, and resistant. It is not known, however, whether individual differences in attachment organization are more consistent with a continuous or a categorical model. The authors addressed this issue by applying P. E. Meehl's (1973, 1992) taxometric techniques for distinguishing latent types (i.e., classes, natural kinds) from latent continua (i.e., dimensions) to Strange Situation data on 1,139 fifteen-month-old children from the NICHD Study of Early Child Care. The results indicate that variation in attachment patterns is largely continuous, not categorical. The discussion focuses on the implications of dimensional models of individual differences for attachment theory and research. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Unresolved states of mind, disorganized attachment relationships, and disrupted interactions of adolescent mothers and their infants.

The links between unresolved maternal attachment status, disrupted maternal interaction in play situations, and disorganized attachment relationships were examined in a study of 82 adolescent mother-infant dyads. Maternal interactive behavior was measured using the Atypical Maternal Behavior Instrument for Assessment and Classification coding system. Additional rating scales were developed to correspond to the 5 dimensions of disrupted maternal behavior outlined by E. Bronfman, E. Parsons, and K. Lyons-Ruth (1999). A robust association was observed between disrupted maternal behavior and disorganized attachment. Ratings of disrupted maternal behavior revealed that disorganized attachment relationships were strongly related to ratings of fearful/disoriented behavior. Moreover, mothers who were unresolved were more likely than not-unresolved mothers to show disrupted patterns of interaction with their infants. Regression analyses suggested that disrupted behavior statistically mediated the association between unresolved status and disorganized attachment relationships. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Association between the serotonin transporter promoter polymorphism (5-HTTLPR) and adult unresolved attachment.

Research on antecedents of organized attachment has focused on the quality of caregiving received during childhood. In recent years, research has begun to examine the influence of genetic factors on quality of infant attachment. However, no published studies report on the association between specific genetic factors and adult attachment. This study examined the link between the 5-HTTLPR promoter polymorphism of the serotonin transporter gene and adult unresolved attachment assessed with the Adult Attachment Interview. Genetic material and information on attachment-related loss or trauma were available for 86 participants. Multivariate regression analyses showed an association between the short 5-HTTLPR allele and increased risk for unresolved attachment. Temperament traits and psychological symptoms did not affect the association between 5-HTTLPR and unresolved attachment. The authors hypothesize that the increased susceptibility to unresolved attachment among carriers of the short allele of 5-HTTLPR is consistent with the role of serotonin in modulation of frontal-amygdala circuitry. The findings challenge current thinking by demonstrating significant genetic influences on a phenomenon previously thought to be largely environmentally driven. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A dimensional approach to maternal attachment state of mind: Relations to maternal sensitivity and maternal autonomy support.

The aim of this study was to examine the developmental significance of the newly developed dimensional approach to attachment state of mind by investigating its capacity to predict individual differences in the quality of two caregiving behaviors—maternal sensitivity and maternal autonomy support—that are linked to numerous important child outcomes. Seventy-one upper-middle-class, predominantly French-speaking and Caucasian dyads participated in 3 home visits (34 girls). The Adult Attachment Interview (AAI) was administered when the infants were 8 months old, maternal sensitivity was assessed when they were 12 months old, and maternal autonomy support was assessed at 15 months. The results revealed that, above and beyond SES, maternal sensitivity was negatively related to the dismissing dimension of the AAI, whereas maternal autonomy support was negatively linked to the preoccupied/unresolved dimension. In contrast, the traditional AAI categories were not significantly linked to parenting. These results speak to the relevance of using a continuous approach to attachment state of mind when predicting individual differences in specific caregiving behaviors. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sibling loss and attachment style: An exploratory study.

Current conceptualizations do not adequately explain the particular relational difficulties experienced by young adults who have been faced with the death of a sibling. In this study, the authors explore interrelationships between attachment style, coping style, repressive defensiveness, and the loss of a sibling in childhood. The findings suggest that this type of stressor may result in different coping reactions than other stressors. In particular, sibling loss seems to stimulate greater support seeking than withdrawal, regardless of attachment style. Sibling loss can pose particular relational challenges for the developing child because of the traumatic impact on the primary caregivers. This fact makes it important for therapists to have an understanding of some of the potential consequences of this particular traumatic event. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relationships between marital distress and child behavior problems, maternal personal adjustment, maternal personality, and maternal parenting behavior.

Examined the relationship of marital adjustment to maternal personal adjustment, maternal personality, maternal perception of child adjustment, maternal parenting behavior, and child behavior using 20 maritally distressed and 20 maritally nondistressed mothers and their children (aged 3–7 yrs). Ss were given a battery of tests that included the Beck Depression Inventory, the Trait form of the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory, and the Personality Research Form—Form A. Results indicate that, compared to mothers in the maritally nondistressed group, mothers in the distressed group perceived themselves as significantly more anxious and depressed and perceived their children as having significantly more behavior problems, particularly in the area of undercontrol. There were no differences between the groups with respect to maternal personality. Maritally distressed mothers showed less appropriate parenting behavior than did nondistressed mothers and the children of maritally distressed mothers were more deviant than were children of nondistressed mothers. (16 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Neonatal precursors of infant behavior.

Tested 92 clinically normal infants (48 male, 44 female) at 2 and 90 days of age. At 2 days, they were tested in the hospitals in which they were born. Five hours of autonomic recordings during undisturbed periods and 1 hr of behavioral testing yielded measures that when factor analyzed produced 3 stable dimensions: Reactivity-Irritability, Maturity, and Reflexive and Discriminative Sucking. These dimensions were related to observational data obtained from the infants at 90 days of age. At 90 days, 2 home visits totaling 12 hrs yielded behavioral observations and ratings that when factor analyzed yielded 3 dimensions for males (Tonic-Active, Social, and Clarity) and 4 for females (Active-Social, Tonic, Positive Vocalizations, and Clarity). Correlations between the newborn factors and those obtained at 90 days revealed 1 summarizing relation for males: Newborn Maturity was positively correlated with Tonic-Active behavior at 90 days. No relations were found for females. Results reflect the greater endogenous stability for males and support hypotheses that females may be more receptive to environmental influence during early infancy. (18 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Intraindividual variability in infant behavior.

Longitudinal observational data of infant crying, fretting/fussing, and smiling and the time spent in physical contact with the mother were used in a study on behavioral variability. The infants were followed weekly for a 15-month period. Evidence was found of an important intraindividual variability in the studied behaviors, specifically between the ages of 0 and 5 months, 5 and 10 months, but not between 10 and 15 months. Results are discussed and analyzed in the light of earlier literature. The possible functions and the factors underlying variability in development as well as its methodological implications are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Disorganization of attachment in relation to maternal alcohol consumption.

The relation between maternal alcohol consumption and infant attachment behavior at 1 year of age was investigated. Alcohol consumption was estimated by self-report questionnaires that were filled out by mothers over 30 years of age regarding the amount of alcohol they had consumed prior to, during, and following pregnancy. The attachment behavior of infants was observed using the Ainsworth "strange-situation" procedure. Infants were classified as secure (Group B); insecure–avoidant (Group A); or insecure–ambivalent/resistant (Group C). Additionally, a new classification of insecure–disorganized/disoriented (Group D), developed by Main and Solomon (1986), was used. The majority of infants of mothers who had consumed more alcohol were insecure in comparison with a minority of insecure infants of mothers who had been abstinent or light drinkers. The classification of infants as insecure–disorganized/disoriented helped to identify a large number of infants who were insecure in the group of heavy-drinking mothers. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Contextual basis of maternal perceptions of infant temperament.

To elucidate the differential saliency of infant emotions to mothers across interactive contexts, the authors examined the moderating role of observed infant affect during interactions with mother in the relation between maternal and laboratory-based ratings of infant temperament. Fifty-nine developmentally healthy 9-month-old infants were judged for degree of infant positive, infant negative, and mother-infant mutually positive affect during the course of object-focused and routine home-based activities with mother. Mothers completed the Infant Behavior Questionnaire (M. K. Rothbart, 1981), and infants underwent the Laboratory Temperament Assessment Battery (H. H. Goldsmith & M. K. Rothbart, 1999). Results revealed that maternal and observer ratings of infant negativity converged when infants manifested high degrees of negative affect during routine home-based activities. Maternal and observer ratings of infant positivity converged when infants experienced low mutually positive affect during play. These findings support the hypothesis that maternal perceptions are based on mothers' experiences with their infants but that the salience of infant temperamental characteristics to mothers varies across emotion and interactive context. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)