Comprehending household cooking energy choice in rural India

Energy is essential to attain the quality of life and economic prosperity in a society. In the rural areas of India, cooking dominates the aggregate consumption of energy. This energy demand is mostly met by biomass fuels, which have many associated inherent disadvantages. Hence, it is important to understand the decision making process in rural households regarding the choice of cooking fuels. For this purpose, household information using the 61st round of National Sample Survey is analyzed for the rural parts of India. The logistic regression model is used to explain the determinants of clean fuel use for cooking purposes. The study shows that number of educated females between 10 and 50 years of age, average household education index, regular salary, and monthly per capita consumption expenditure have a positive and significant impact on probability of using clean cooking fuels, whereas possessing a Below Poverty Line ration card, belonging to reserved caste categories, family size and size of farm land have a significant negative linkage.     

Induction stoves as an option for clean cooking in rural India

As part of a programme on ‘access to clean cooking alternatives in rural India’, induction stoves were introduced in nearly 4000 rural households in Himachal Pradesh, one of the few highly electrified states in India. Analysis of primary usage information from 1000 rural households revealed that electricity majorly replaced Liquid Petroleum Gas (LPG), generally used as a secondary cooking fuel, but did not influence a similar shift from traditional mud stoves as the primary cooking technology. Likewise, the shift from firewood to electricity as a primary cooking fuel was observed in only 5% of the households studied. Country level analysis indicates that rural households falling in lower monthly per capita expenditure (MPCE) classes have lesser access to electricity and clean cooking options than those falling in higher MPCE classes. Again, only three states in India with high levels of rural household electrification report consumption statuses more than 82 kWh per month (the estimated mean for electricity consumption by induction stoves). Overall, the results of the study indicate that induction stoves will have limited potential in reducing the consumption of firewood and LPG if included in energy access programmes, that too only in regions where high levels of electrification exist.     

Multi-criteria evaluation of cooking energy alternatives for promoting parabolic solar cooker in India

The policy formulation for cooking energy substitution by renewables is addressed in multi-criteria context. A survey is conducted to know the perceptions of different decision making groups on present dissemination of various cooking energy alternatives in India. Nine cooking energy alternatives are evaluated on 30 different criteria comprising of technical, economic, environmental/social, behavioral and commercial issues. Preference Ranking Organization METHod for Enrichment Evaluation (PROMETHEE), a multi-criteria decision making method of outranking nature is used to rank the alternatives. It is found that liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) stove is the most preferred device, followed by kerosene stove, solar box cooker and parabolic solar cooker (PSC) in that order. A sensitivity analysis is also carried out for identifying potential areas for improvement for PSC. On the basis of results, strategies for promoting wide spread use of PSC are formulated.     

Barriers to dissemination of renewable energy technologies for cooking

A preliminary effort to identify the barriers to dissemination of renewable energy technologies in developing countries has been made.     

Optimal mix of technologies in rural India: The cooking sector

In the paper, an attempt is made towards the development of a linear programming micromodel for determining an optimal mix of technologies for domestic cooking in the rural areas of India. A mathematical model involving common sources (including biomass, commercial and solar) and commercially available technologies is formulated along with the detailed technoeconomics of the different energy conversion routes. In order to make the developed model flexible, the cooking sector is divided into two subsectors, namely the low temperature thermal energy requirement and end uses requiring thermal energy at mediumhigh temperatures. The marginal costs of both, the different energy resources, and the possible energy conversion routes are discussed in the context of rural India. The paper forms a part of a larger exercise of formulating a micromodel for the design of a rural energy supply system involving the three major end uses of energy in rural areas of India, i.e. cooking, irrigation and lighting.     

Financial evaluation of renewable energy technologies for irrigation water pumping in India

An attempt to develop a simple framework for financial evaluation of renewable energy technologies (RETs) such as photovoltaic (PV) pump, windmill pump, biogas and producer gas-driven dual fuel engine pumps for irrigation water pumping has been made. The unit cost of water and unit cost of useful energy delivered by the RETs have been estimated. The monetary benefits that accrued to the end-user have been quantified in terms of the amount of diesel or electricity saved. Financial figures of merit for the investments made in the RETs have been estimated. The effect of fuel price escalation on these measures of financial performance has also been evaluated along with the estimation of the break-even prices of fuels likely to be substituted by RETs. Results of some exemplifying calculations are presented and briefly discussed.     

Utility assessment of parabolic solar cooker as a domestic cooking device in India

The needs of cooking energy in households can be supplemented by parabolic solar cooker (PSC). Policy for energy substitution by renewables has to consider many conflicting socio-economic issues. To know the perceptions of decision-makers and users, a survey is conducted to evaluate nine cooking energy devices available in India. Energy technology issues, economics, environmental/social, behavioral and commercial issues are considered for the evaluation. Thirty criteria are considered under these five aspects for pair-wise comparison of the devices. Additive Multi-Attribute Utility Theory (MAUT) is employed to evolve ranking of selected devices. It is found that Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) stove is the most preferred cooking device, followed by microwave ovens and kerosene stoves. PSC has occupied fifth rank amongst the devices. A sensitivity analysis is also carried out for identifying potential areas of improvement for PSC, which forms a basis for policy interventions required for its better dissemination in India.     

Energy allocations for cooking in UP households (India): A fuzzy multi-objective analysis

Planning for proper deployment of energy resources for different end uses is important. The choice of energy resources involves an effort to synthesise suggestions coming from various areas as well as the subjectivity of the decision maker. The fuzzy approach is becoming important in such decision scenarios. In this paper, the multi-objective energy resource allocation problem is studied in a fuzzy manner, with the linear fuzzification of objectives, which include economic, environmental, technical and other concerns. The concept of operational adequacy measure, as a measure of the degree of satisfaction, is introduced. The cooking energy sources for the household sector of Uttar Pradesh (India) are considered as an illustration of the approach. Scenario development has also been implemented. LPG, biogas and fuelwood should be readily promoted under all circumstances. Solar thermal energy can be promoted except in the ‘economic-oriented’ scenario, where charcoal gets preference. Grid electricity finds favour in the ‘energy conservation and rationalisation’ scenario. The overall operational adequacy measure is 0.454, which decreases under different scenarios. The minimum satisfaction is achieved in the ‘environment-oriented scenario’. A ranking of the objective functions and the optimal and non-optimal sources has also been determined.     

Model projections for household energy use in India

Energy use in developing countries is heterogeneous across households. Present day global energy models are mostly too aggregate to account for this heterogeneity. Here, a bottom-up model for residential energy use that starts from key dynamic concepts on energy use in developing countries is presented and applied to India. Energy use and fuel choice is determined for five end-use functions (cooking, water heating, space heating, lighting and appliances) and for five different income quintiles in rural and urban areas. The paper specifically explores the consequences of different assumptions for income distribution and rural electrification on residential sector energy use and CO₂ emissions, finding that results are clearly sensitive to variations in these parameters. As a result of population and economic growth, total Indian residential energy use is expected to increase by around 65–75% in 2050 compared to 2005, but residential carbon emissions may increase by up to 9–10 times the 2005 level. While a more equal income distribution and rural electrification enhance the transition to commercial fuels and reduce poverty, there is a trade-off in terms of higher CO₂ emissions via increased electricity use.     

The potential role of hydrogen energy in India and Western Europe

We used the TIMER energy model to explore the potential role of hydrogen in the energy systems of India and Western Europe, looking at the impacts on its main incentives: climate policy, energy security and urban air pollution. We found that hydrogen will not play a major role in both regions without considerable cost reductions, mainly in fuel cell technology. Also, energy taxation policy is essential for hydrogen penetration and India's lower energy taxes limit India's capacity to favour hydrogen. Once available to the (European) energy system, hydrogen can decrease the cost of CO₂ emission reduction by increasing the potential for carbon capture technology. However, climate policy alone is insufficient to speed up the transition. Hydrogen diversifies energy imports; especially for Europe it decreases oil imports, while increasing imports of coal and natural gas. For India, it provides an opportunity to decrease oil imports and use indigenous coal resources in the transport sector. Hydrogen improves urban air quality by shifting emissions from urban transport to hydrogen production facilities. However, for total net emissions we found a sensitive trade-off between lower emissions at end-use (in transport) and higher emissions from hydrogen production, depending on local policy for hydrogen production facilities.     

Making the clean available: Escaping India’s Chulha Trap

Solid cookfuel pollution is the largest energy-related health risk globally and most important cause of ill-health for Indian women and girls. At 700 million cooking with open biomass chulhas, the Indian population exposed has not changed in several decades, in spite of hundreds of programs to make the “available clean”, i.e. to burn biomass cleanly in advanced stoves. While such efforts continue, there is need to open up another front to attack this health hazard. Gas and electric cooking, which are clean at the household, are already the choice for one-third of Indians. Needed is a new agenda to make the “clean available”, i.e., to vigorously extend these clean fuels into populations that are caught in the Chulha Trap. This will require engaging new actors including the power and petroleum ministries as well as the ministry of health, which have not to date been directly engaged in addressing this problem. It will have implications for LPG imports, distribution networks, and electric and gas user technologies, as well as setting new priorities for electrification and biofuels, but at heart needs to be addressed as a health problem, not one of energy access, if it is to be solved effectively.     

Shaping a sustainable energy future for India: Management challenges

Most of the studies on the Indian energy sector focus on the possible future scenarios of Indian energy system development without considering the management dimension to the problem—how to ensure a smooth transition to reach the desired future state. The purpose of this paper is to highlight some sector management concerns to a sustainable energy future in the country. The paper follows a deductive approach and reviews the present status and possible future energy outlooks from the existing literature. This is followed by a strategy outline to achieve long-term energy sustainability. Management challenges on the way to such a sustainable future are finally presented. The paper finds that the aspiration of becoming an economic powerhouse and the need to eradicate poverty will necessarily mean an increase in energy consumption unless a decoupling of energy and GDP growth is achieved. Consequently, the energy future of the country is eminently unsustainable. A strategy focussing on demand reduction, enhanced access, use of local resources and better management practices is proposed here. However, a sustainable path faces a number of challenges from the management and policy perspectives.     

Determinants of household energy consumption in India

Improving access to affordable modern energy is critical to improving living standards in the developing world. Rural households in India, in particular, are almost entirely reliant on traditional biomass for their basic cooking energy needs. This has adverse effects on their health and productivity, and also causes environmental degradation. This study presents a new generic modelling approach, with a focus on cooking fuel choices, and explores response strategies for energy poverty eradication in India. The modelling approach analyzes the determinants of fuel consumption choices for heterogeneous household groups, incorporating the effect of income distributions and traditionally more intangible factors such as preferences and private discount rates. The methodology is used to develop alternate future scenarios that explore how different policy mechanisms such as fuel subsidies and micro-financing can enhance the diffusion of modern, more efficient, energy sources in India.     

Laboratory based assessment of cookstove performance using energy and emission parameters for North Indian cooking cycle

The study was conducted to evaluate the performance of cookstoves using controlled cooking test (CCT) with cooking cycles of Northern India, i.e., Uttar Pradesh (UP) and Uttarakhand (UK). Cooking time, specific energy consumption (SEC), and emission factors (EFs) of carbon monoxide (CO) and particulate matter (PM) were monitored for three improved and one traditional cookstoves. Cooking was conducted by residents of the study area. The findings from the study showed that the difference in thickness of roti baked in UP and UK resulted in a significant change in emission and energy performance in all the four cookstoves. The low-power inputs required for baking thinner roti resulted in higher CO and PM emissions in case of CCT-UK. The results of CCT were also compared to Water Boiling Test (WBT) for all the four cookstoves. The percent reductions in terms of energy and emission parameters in the three improved cookstoves compared to traditional cookstove were found to differ in CCT and WBT. Large variations were also observed during the emission performance (40% decrease in CO EF) of the fan cookstove with change in fan speed, which was usually unreported in previous studies. Overall, results show significant influence of cooking cycles on cookstove performance, which was found to alter the cookstove rankings. Therefore, the study thrusts upon the inclusion of user centric cookstove testing protocols in order to identify actual benefits for targeted rural communities.     

Financial evaluation of SPV lanterns for rural lighting in India

Financial evaluation of solar photovoltaic (SPV) lanterns has been undertaken. The factors influencing the capital as well as the maintenance cost of SPV lantern have been analyzed. Cost per hour of illumination and cost per unit useful energy have been used for comparison of SPV lanterns with other options of rural domestic lighting. The benefits accrued to the user of an SPV lantern have been quantified in terms of the monetary worth of the conventional fuels being saved.     

Wind energy status in India: A short review

Renewable energy represents an area of tremendous opportunity for India. Energy is considered a prime agent in the generation of wealth and a significant factor in economic development. Energy is also essential for improving the quality of life. Development of conventional forms of energy for meeting the growing energy needs of society at a reasonable cost is the responsibility of the Government. Limited fossil resources and associated environmental problems have emphasized the need for new sustainable energy supply options. India depends heavily on coal and oil for meeting its energy demand which contributes to smog, acid rain and greenhouse gases’ emission. Last 25 years has been a period of intense activities related to research, development, production and distribution of energy in India.Though major energy sources for electrical power are coal and natural gas, development and promotion of non-conventional sources of energy such as solar, wind and bio-energy, are also getting sustained attention. The use of electricity has grown since it can be used in variety of applications as well as it can be easily transmitted, the uses of renewable energy like wind and solar is rising. Wind energy is a clean, eco-friendly, renewable resource and is nonpolluting. The gross wind power potential is estimated at around 48,561 MW in the country; a capacity of 14,989.89 MW up to 31st August 2011 has so far been added through wind, which places India in the fifth position globally. This paper discusses the ways in which India has already supported the growth of renewable energy technologies i.e. wind energy and its potential to expand their contribution to world growth in a way that is consistent with world's developmental and environmental goals. The paper presents current status, major achievements and future aspects of wind energy in India.     

Evaluation of cooking energy cost,efficiency, impact on air pollution and policy in Nigeria

This study evaluated the cooking energy costs and efficiencies, the air pollution impacts of cooking energy consumption and the impact of the energy policy in the cooking energy sector in Nigeria. Water boiling and cooking experiments using the common cooking energy sources (fuel wood, kerosene, liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) and electricity) and common food items (water, yam and beans) were carried out. Energy surveys were carried out to determine the cooking energy use patterns in the urban and rural areas. It was found that fuel wood is the least expensive cooking energy source and LPG is the most expensive. Energy use efficiencies for boiling water were estimated at 25%, 46%, 73%, 79%, 66% and 90% for fuel wood, kerosene, gas, electric immersion coil, electric heating coil and electric hot plate, respectively. Energy intensity was found to be a comparative measure of energy efficiency. The impacts of air pollution from household cooking suggested a possibility of significant air pollutants contribution to the ambient environment using any of the energy carriers considered except electricity. The cooking energy use patterns showed that fuel wood is the predominant energy source for cooking in the rural areas while kerosene is the predominant energy source in the urban areas, revealing that the energy policy in the country had made no impact in the cooking energy sector. Recommendations for improving the energy supply situation were given and for removing the barriers that prevent the implementation of the recommendations.     

Renewable energy in India: Historical developments and prospects

Promoting renewable energy in India has assumed great importance in recent years in view of high growth rate of energy consumption, high share of coal in domestic energy demand, heavy dependence on imports for meeting demands for petroleum fuels and volatility of world oil market. A number of renewable energy technologies (RETs) are now well established in the country. The technology that has achieved the most dramatic growth rate and success is wind energy; India ranks fourth in the world in terms of total installed capacity. India hosts the world's largest small gasifier programme and second largest biogas programme. After many years of slow growth, demand for solar water heaters appears to be gaining momentum. Small hydro has been growing in India at a slow but steady pace. Installation of some of the technologies appears to have slowed down in recent years; these include improved cooking stoves (ICSs) and solar photovoltaic (PV) systems. In spite of many successes, the overall growth of renewable energy in India has remained rather slow. A number of factors are likely to boost the future prospects of renewable energy in the country; these include global pressure and voluntary targets for greenhouse gas emission reduction, a possible future oil crisis, intensification of rural electrification program, and import of hydropower from neighbouring countries.     

Financial analysis of an installed small scale seasonal thermal energy store

The financial viability of an installed solar heating system incorporating a Seasonal Thermal Energy Store (STES) for a house constructed to the low-energy Passivhaus standard is analysed. Details are provided of system costs and the recorded performance for the installation which is located in Galway, Ireland, a location which experiences a Temperate Maritime Climate. Using these figures, a financial Life Cycle Analysis has been undertaken to determine the cost effectiveness of the system in providing space heating and domestic hot water.As part of the life cycle cost analysis the effect of the treatment of the terminal value of the STES was considered. The analysis shows that irrespective of the terminal value attached to the STES, the use of solar thermal energy in combination with an STES offered a more favourable business case than the use of electricity for DHW and space heating over the 40 year time period considered. This shows that a direct space heating and DHW system incorporating STES can be economically viable in a Temperate Maritime Climate in the long term.     

Nuclear and clean coal technology options for sustainable development in India

Due to the growing energy needs along with increasing concerns towards control of greenhouse gas emissions, most developing countries are under pressure to find alternative methods for energy conversion and policies to make these technologies economically viable. Most of the energy is produced from fossil fuel in India which is not a sustainable source of energy. In this paper Indian power sector has been examined by using MARKAL model for introduction of clean coal and advanced nuclear technologies with implementation of energy conservation potential. The result shows that application of clean technologies gives energy security but not significant reduction in carbon dioxide emissions. When clean technologies apply with energy conservation a huge amount of CO₂ can be reduced and also economically viable. Three scenarios including base case scenario have been developed to estimate the resource allocations and CO₂ mitigation. The clean technologies with maximum savings potential shows 70% CO₂ reduction in the year 2045.