Longitudinal multilevel models of the big-fish-little-pond effect on academic self-concept: Counterbalancing contrast and reflected-glory effects in Hong Kong schools.

Longitudinal multilevel path models (7,997 students, 44 high schools, 4 years) evaluated effects of school-average achievement and perceived school status on academic self-concept in Hong Kong, which has a collectivist culture with a highly achievement-segregated high school system. Consistent with a priori predictions based on the big-fish-little-pond effect (BFLPE), higher school-average achievements led to lower academic self-concepts (contrast effect), whereas higher perceived school status had a counterbalancing positive effect on self-concept (reflected-glory, assimilation effect). The negative BFLPE is the net effect of counterbalancing influences, stronger negative contrast effects, and weaker positive assimilation effects so that controlling perceived school status led to purer—and even more negative— contrast effects. Attending a school where school-average achievement is high simultaneously resulted in a more demanding basis of comparison for one's own accomplishments (the stronger negative contrast effect) and a source of pride (the weaker positive assimilation effect), (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Self-serving effect (bias?) in academic attributions: Its relation to academic achievement and self-concept.

Related the size of the self-serving effect (SSE), the tendency to accept responsibility for one's successes but not one's failures, for academic self-attributions to other academic constructs in 3 studies, 2 with 5th graders (226 and 559 Ss) and 1 with 122 9th graders. Ss completed an attribution scale and a self-concept measure, and reading achievement was assessed for 5th graders. Results from the 3 studies demonstrate that the size of the SSE was larger for (a) attributions to ability and effort than those to external causes, (b) more able students, (c) students with higher academic self-concepts, (d) students inferred to have higher academic self-concepts by teachers and by peers, and, perhaps, (e) younger students. SSEs for outcomes in mathematics and reading, particularly for attributions to ability, were content specific. The content specificity of the SSE and this logical pattern of relations among the SSEs and other variables suggest that academic achievement and academic self-concept are nonmotivational influences on the SSE. (42 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Content specificity of relations between academic achievement and academic self-concept.

In extension of research on the H. W. Marsh/R. J. Shavelson (1985) model of self-concept, a set of 14 academic self-concept scales was related to school performances in 8 school subjects for a sample of 507 high school boys. Correlations between matching areas of self-concept and achievement (.45 to .70; mean r?=?.57) were much larger than those typically found in previous research. Path models and multitrait-multimethod analyses demonstrated that self-concept/academic achievement relations were very specific to particular school subjects. The findings indicate that components of academic self-concepts are more differentiated (i.e., less correlated) than are achievement scores and that relations between academic self-concepts and academic achievements are more content specific than has been previously assumed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The structure of academic self-concept: The Marsh/Shavelson model.

New academic self-concept instruments were used to measure self-concepts in 13 (Grades 5–6) or 16 (Grades 7–10) school subjects and to test the structure of academic self-concept posited in the Marsh/Shavelson model. First-order factor analyses identified the scales each instrument was designed to measure, demonstrating that academic self-concept is remarkably subject-specific. As posited, 2 higher order factors were sufficient to explain relations among core academic subjects, but additional higher order factors were needed to explain other school subjects (e.g., physical education, art, and music). The hierarchy, however, was weak, and much of the variance in specific subject self-concepts was unexplained by the higher order factors. Researchers interested in self-concepts in particular subjects are advised to use self-concept scales specific to those subject areas in addition, perhaps, to other measures of academic self-concept. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Social comparison and big-fish-little-pond effects on self-concept and other self-belief constructs: Role of generalized and specific others.

Two studies integrate the big-fish-little-pond effect (BFLPE; negative effects of class-average achievement on academic self-concept, ASC), which is based upon educational psychological research, with related social psychological research that is based on social comparison theory. Critical distinctions are the nature of the social comparison processes that are based on generalized-other (class- or school-average) or individual (target comparison classmate) comparisons, and the nature of self-belief constructs that invoke normative (social comparison) or absolute frames of reference. In a large cross-national study (26 countries; 3,851 schools; 103,558 students), school-average ability negatively affected ASC but had little effect on 4 other self-belief constructs that did not invoke social comparison processes. In Study 2 (64 classes; 764 students), 2 sources of social comparison information (class-average achievement and achievement of an individually selected target comparison classmate) each had distinct, substantial negative effects on agency self-beliefs that invoked social comparison processes but not on metacognitive responses that did not invoke these processes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Causal effects of academic self-concept on academic achievement: Structural equation models of longitudinal data.

Academic self-concept, school marks, and teacher ratings of achievement were collected in 3 high-school subjects in each of 3 years (N?=?603). In the structural equation models (SEMs) considered, both school-based performance and academic self-concept were measured with multiple indicators for each school subject. SEMs were used to evaluate the effects of prior academic self-concept on subsequent achievement after controlling for the effects of prior achievement, and the effects of prior achievement on subsequent academic self-concept after controlling for the effects of prior academic self-concept. Although the effects of achievement tended to be larger and more systematic, there was clear support for both academic self-concept and achievement effects. Although there was support for this reciprocal effects model for all 3 school subjects, self-concept effects tended to be larger and more systematic for mathematics than for science and, particularly, English. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A multifaceted academic self-concept: Its hierarchical structure and its relation to academic achievement.

Academic self-concept, originally posited by Shavelson as a single higher-order facet, was found by Marsh and Shavelson to comprise at least 2 higher-order academic facets (verbal and math). Marsh developed the internal/external (I/E) frame of reference model to account for the extreme separation of math and verbal self-concepts and their relations to math and verbal achievements. In our investigation, students completed the academic self-concept scales from 3 instruments that were the basis of 2 studies. In the 1st study, the 2 higher-order academic factors posited by Marsh and Shavelson fit the data substantially better than did a single higher order facet. In subsequent discussion, the Marsh/Shavelson model is more clearly defined, and directions for further research are identified. The 2nd study provided further support for the I/E frame of reference model in that (a) verbal and math self-concepts were nearly uncorrelated, (b) verbal achievement positively affected verbal self-concept but negatively affected math self-concept (i.e., higher verbal skills led to lower math self-concepts), (c) math achievement positively affected math self-concept but negatively affected verbal self-concept, and (d) the results were consistent for each of 3 self-concept instruments. Both studies demonstrate that in further research at least verbal and math self-concepts, rather than a single general facet of academic self-concepts, should be considered. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Discriminant and predictive validity of academic self-concept, academic self-efficacy, and mathematics-specific self-efficacy.

This study examined whether global academic self-concept and academic self-efficacy beliefs that vary in domain specificity–globality represent distinct or common underlying dimensions. Participants were 205 university students who completed measures of academic self-concept, global academic self-efficacy, and domain-specific mathematics self-efficacy. Confirmatory factor analyses revealed that each of the variables represented separate, though related, latent dimensions of self-perception. Self-efficacy and self-concept were also differentially useful in predicting relatively domain-specific versus global academic and vocational criteria. The implications of these findings for theory and practice related to academic achievement and career development are considered. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Academic self-concept and academic achievement: Developmental perspectives on their causal ordering.

This study tests theoretical and developmental models of the causal ordering between academic self-concept and academic achievement in a multicohort-multioccasion design (i.e., 3 age cohorts, each with 3 measurement waves). Participants were students in Grades 2, 3, and 4 from 10 elementary schools. The structural equation model for the total sample supported a reciprocal-effects model, indicating that achievement has an effect on self-concept (skill-development model) and that academic self-concept has an effect on achievement (self-enhancement model). This pattern was replicated in tests of invariance across the 3 age cohorts and did not support the developmental hypothesis that skill-development and self-enhancement models would vary with age. Discussion centers on the theoretical, methodological, and practical implications of the results. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Identification of self-verification in the formation of children's academic self-concept.

From a self-verification perspective, individuals strive to maintain a consistent self-concept, even if that self-concept is negative. However, most of the research has involved adults and social relationships. In contrast, this study evaluated whether self-verification was also present with children and in the formation of academic self-concept. This was done with a sample of preadolescent students with low and high reading and mathematics performance. There was support for the self-verification notion that individuals with low achievement in one academic domain reduce their self-concept in another. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Social comparison in the classroom: The relationship between academic achievement and self-concept.

One hypothesis derived from social comparison theory is that the relationship between academic achievement and self-concept can best be understood in terms of the child's achievement standing compared with that of classmates. This hypothesis was tested on 159 6–12 yr old academic underachievers in 17 self-contained classrooms. Ss were administered the Metropolitan Achievement Test and the Piers-Harris Children's Self-Concept Scale. When relative within-classroom achievement standing was not considered, reading achievement was not significantly related to self-concept, although mathematics achievement was. When relative within-classroom achievement standing was considered, both reading and math achievement were found to be significantly related to self-concept. (18 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Self-esteem, academic self-concept, and achievement: How the learning environment moderates the dynamics of self-concept.

The authors examine the directionality of effects between global self-esteem, domain-specific academic self-concepts, and academic achievement. Special emphasis is placed on learning environments as potential moderators of the direction of these effects. According to the meritocracy principle presented here, so-called bottom-up effects (i.e., self-esteem is influenced by academic self-concept) are more pronounced in meritocratic learning environments than in ego-protective learning environments. This hypothesis was examined using a three-wave cross-lagged panel design with a large sample of 7th graders from East and West Germany, a total of 5,648 students who were tested shortly after German reunification. Reciprocal effects were found between self-esteem, academic self-concept, and academic achievement. In conformance with the meritocracy principle, support for bottom-up effects was stronger in the meritocratic learning environment. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Causal ordering of academic self-concept and academic achievement: A multiwave, longitudinal panel analysis.

There is surprisingly little sound research on the causal ordering of academic self-concept and academic achievement in longitudinal panel studies, despite its theoretical and practical significance. Data collected in Grades 10, 11, 12, and 1 yr after graduation from high school that were used in this study come from the large (N?=?1,456 students), nationally representative Youth in Transition study (e.g., J. G. Bachman; 1970). It was found that reported grade averages in Grades 11 and 12 were significantly affected by academic self-concept measured the previous year, whereas prior reported grades had no effect on subsequent measures of academic self-concept. The results provide one of the few defensible demonstrations of prior academic self-concept influencing subsequent academic achievement, and the study appears to be methodologically stronger than previous research. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Development of academic self-concept of lower-class and middle-class primary school children.

2,199 elementary school pupils (Grades 1–4) were administered a brief academic self-concept questionnaire as part of a major study of school integration in Jerusalem, Israel. All Ss were also given standardized achievement tests in language and mathematics, and end-of-year teacher grades for these subjects were collected. Results indicate that although academic self-concept scores gradually declined over years in school, their accuracy in reflecting both teacher grades and objective scores increased. However, different patterns of development were found for lower- and middle-class Ss enrolled in integrated and nonintegrated classrooms. Results are discussed in terms of the development of accuracy in self-perception and its relationship to variations in social context. (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Math, verbal, and general academic self-concept: The internal/external frame of reference model and gender differences in self-concept structure.

Tested predictions from H. W. Marsh's (see record 1987-17104-001) internal/external (I/E) frame of reference model (measuring cognitive dimensions of math and verbal self-concepts [S-Cs]), and gender differences in the structure of academic S-C were examined through path analyses of data from 231 Norwegian 6th-grade students (117 boys and 114 girls). Math and verbal S-Cs on a cognitive level were defined as success expectations on defined tasks. No strong support was found for the I/E model: Math and verbal S-Cs were highly correlated, and no significant negative direct effects were found of verbal achievement on math S-C or of math achievement on verbal S-C for boys, although a negative direct effect of verbal achievement on math S-C was found for girls. The results differed from previous research measuring evaluative dimensions of math and verbal S-Cs, suggesting either remarkable cultural differences or that academic S-Cs are more complex than has been assumed. The structure of S-C differed for boys and girls; math and verbal S-Cs related differently to general academic S-C. The gender differences are discussed in terms of sex stereotypes. This study has implications for research on academic S-C and gender differences. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The effect of self-appraisals of ability on academic performance.

Longitudinal data on 1,718 high school males from the Youth in Transition Project (J. G. Bachman, 1970) were analyzed using structural equation models. Data, which were collected over a 3-yr period, included self-appraisals of academic ability and effort, reports of test anxiety, and scores on measures such as the Quick Test and the Vocabulary scale of the General Aptitude Test Battery. Results suggest that self-appraisals had moderate effects on later grades and that this effect in part reflected greater effort by Ss with positive self-appraisals. Although self-appraisals affected the degree of test anxiety experienced by the Ss, they did not appear to affect grades. There was some evidence that test anxiety interfered with performance on standardized tests. (33 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Big-Fish--Little-Pond effect on academic self-concept: A cross-cultural (26-country) test of the negative effects of academically selective schools.

Academically selective schools are intended to affect academic self-concept positively, but theoretical and empirical research demonstrates that the effects are negative. The big-fish--little-pond effect (BFLPE), an application of social comparison theory to educational settings, posits that a student will have a lower academic self-concept in an academically selective school than in a nonselective school. This study, the largest cross-cultural study of the BFLPE ever undertaken, tested theoretical predictions for nationally representative samples of approximately 4,000 15-year-olds from each of 26 countries (N=103,558) who completed the same self-concept instrument and achievement tests. Consistent with the BFLPE, the effects of school-average achievement were negative in all 26 countries (M beta=-.20, SD=.08), demonstrating the BFLPE's cross-cultural generalizability. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Early reading-related skills and performance, reading self-concept, and the development of academic self-concept: A longitudinal study.

Relations between academic self-concept (ASC) and measures of reading-related performance and self-concept were examined in 60 beginning school children who, after 2 years of schooling, were assessed as having positive, negative, or typical ASCs. Data were collected soon after school entry, toward the end of Years 1 and 2, and during the middle of Year 3. Children with negative ASCs performed poorly on reading-related tasks and reported more negative reading self-concepts than did children with positive or typical ASCs. Reading was also highly predictive of negative and positive ASC group membership, but not of typical ASC group membership. Past studies of relations between ASC and achievement involving full-range samples of young children have underestimated the point in time when these factors become causally related to each other. The negative consequences of young children developing patterns of difficulty in learning to read are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The doormat effect: When forgiving erodes self-respect and self-concept clarity.

[Correction Notice: An erratum for this article was reported in Vol 99(1) of Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (see record 2010-12776-008). The graphs in Figure 2, on p. 741, and the graphs in Figure 3, on p. 742, were switched. The corrected figures in their entirety appear in the erratum.] We build on principles from interdependence theory and evolutionary psychology to propose that forgiving bolsters one's self-respect and self-concept clarity if the perpetrator has acted in a manner that signals that the victim will be safe and valued in a continued relationship with the perpetrator but that forgiving diminishes one's self-respect and self-concept clarity if the perpetrator has not. Study 1 employed a longitudinal design to demonstrate that the association of marital forgiveness with trajectories of self-respect over the first 5 years of marriage depends on the spouse's dispositional tendency to indicate that the partner will be safe and valued (i.e., agreeableness). Studies 2 and 3 employed experimental procedures to demonstrate that the effects of forgiveness on self-respect and self-concept clarity depend on the perpetrator's event-specific indication that the victim will be safe and valued (i.e., amends). Study 4 employed a longitudinal design to demonstrate that the association of forgiveness with subsequent self-respect and self-concept clarity similarly depends on the extent to which the perpetrator has made amends. These studies reveal that, under some circumstances, forgiveness negatively impacts the self. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Home environment, self-concept, and academic achievement: A causal modeling approach.

[Correction Notice: An erratum for this article was reported in Vol 77(3) of Journal of Educational Psychology (see record 2008-10971-001). The caption to Figure 3 on page 1271 is incorrect. "SOSC = social self-concept" should read "NASC = nonacademic self-concept." In addition, on page 1274 in the Results section, the reference to McDonald & Leong (1974) should have been deleted.] Investigated the relation between home environment, self-concept, and academic achievement in 2,297 14–15 yr old Koreans. Data on Ss was collected in 4 different samples to test 4 structural equation models. Group 1 consisted of 537 males, Group 2 consisted of 537 males, Group 3 consisted of 611 females, and Group 4 consisted of 612 females. Results show that over the 4 samples, self-concept was a mediating variable between home environment and academic achievement. Results did not support the commonly held view that home environment exerts direct effects on academic achievement. Social status indicators had indirect effects on self-concept via family psychological characteristics. Academic self-concept affected academic achievement more strongly than did presentation-of-self or social self-concept. (51 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)