The "teacher's pet" phenomenon, students' perceptions of teachers' differential behavior, and students' morale.

The relationships among the teacher's pet phenomenon, students' perceptions of teachers' differential behavior, and students' morale were investigated in 80 upper elementary Israeli classrooms. The intensity of the teacher's pet phenomenon (rate of students' consensus in identifying teachers' pets in each classroom) was related to perceived teachers' differential behavior, particularly to teachers' differential (also preferential) affect. In turn, teachers' perceived differential affect was negatively related to students' morale and satisfaction. In classrooms of teachers who had pets who were not popular, students demonstrated lower morale, whereas students in "popular-pet" classrooms did not demonstrate lower morale. Previous findings on the teacher's pet phenomenon and on students' and teachers' perceptions of teachers' differential behavior were replicated. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The other half of the expectancy equation: Pygmalion.

The central position of this study is that both expectancy research and compensatory educational theory have reached an impasse because expectancy manipulation has largely been confined to the teacher. 45 inner-city 5-6 yr old Blacks enrolled in a compensatory program were exposed to different positive expectancy inductions in order to assess the effects of manipulating Ss' expectations alone, teacher's alone, and the 2 simultaneously on reading achievement test scores (Metropolitan Reading Readiness Test, Form A). Results show that postexperimental scores improved significantly for all 3 expectancy conditions. Moreover, inducing positive expectations in Ss was more effective than the conventional teacher manipulation and was as successful as the group in which both teachers and Ss were given controlled feedback. It is concluded that perhaps the focus of educational programs should be the potentially malleable child rather than the sometimes intransigent teacher. (26 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Social class and academic guidance: A social-psychological analysis.

Canadian research has consistently shown that, compared with high social class students, a lower proportion of low social class students have high educational expectations. This difference persists even when the level of mental ability between the 2 groups is the same. To answer the question of why so many low social class students do not have high educational expectations, a sample of 1,329 Grade 8 students were administered Form A of Scale 2 of the Culture Fair Intelligence Test and a measure of academic self-confidence. Results show that academic self-concept played a critical role in the way students developed their educational expectations. Part I found that high social class students had a higher academic self-concept than low social class students, even though both groups had a similar level of mental ability. Using a subsample of low social class students with high mental ability, Part 2 found that such students' perception of guidance information was based more on their academic self-concept than on their mental ability. Their academic self-concept thus operated as a frame of reference for interpreting academic advice. Results thus extend previous research by showing that students' academic self-concept does not necessarily match the level of their mental ability, one consequence being that many low social class students develop low educational expectations even though they have high mental ability. Furthermore, even when academic guidance is offered, many of these students, on the basis of their low academic self-concept, interpret the advice as advocating low educational expectations for them. (French summary) (31 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Student motivation in middle school: The role of perceived pedagogical caring.

This study examined adolescents' perceptions of pedagogical caring in relation to their motivation to achieve positive social and academic outcomes in middle school. A longitudinal sample of 248 students was followed from 6th to 8th grade. Perceived caring from teachers predicted motivational outcomes, even when students' current levels of psychological distress and beliefs about personal control, as well as previous (6th grade) motivation and performance, were taken into account. Eighth-grade students characterize supportive and caring teachers along dimensions suggested by N. Noddings (1992) and models of effective parenting (D. Baumrind, 1971). Teachers who care were described as demonstrating democratic interaction styles, developing expectations for student behavior in light of individual differences, modeling a "caring" attitude toward their own work, and providing constructive feedback. The implications for understanding links between teacher behavior and student achievement are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Environmental perceptions of students in same-sex and coeducational physical education classes.

Although class climate has been studied in relation to same-sex or coeducational schools and academic classroom environments, physical education presents a unique situation not frequently examined in this regard. Middle and high school students' perceptions of the environment were examined following their participation in a basketball unit. Results indicated that same-sex and coeducational physical education classes revealed quite different climates, although boys and girls in the same coeducational classes generally viewed their environments in a similar manner. Overall, girls' same-sex classes were perceived most favorably, whereas boys' same-sex classes were perceived least favorably. However, climate was viewed differently by girls and boys depending on whether they were perceiving the class as a whole or from the perspective of their own gender. In addition, teacher gender was not a factor in the results. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Outcome and attributional disagreements between students and their teachers.

Teachers' and students' outcome interpretations, attributions for the outcome, expectancies of future exam outcome, and perceptions concerning instrumental actions were compared after a math exam. One third of the students disagreed with their teacher about whether the exam outcome was a success or a failure; teachers evaluated the outcomes more positively than did students. When the students and the teachers agreed on the outcome interpretation, their mean attributional ratings did not apparently differ. However, ratings of teacher–student dyads revealed considerable attributional differences. After perceived failure, the dyadic attributional disagreements were related to disagreements concerning the instrumental actions needed for future success. Also, given failure, the more discrepant the dyad members' views of the stability of the attributions were, the more discrepant were their future expectations. Disagreements between students and teachers concerning outcome evaluation, causal perception, and future expectancy are discussed in terms of students' and teachers' biases. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Controlling personal rewards: Professional teachers' differential use of feedback and the effects of feedback on the student's motivation to perform.

Conducted 3 experiments with 104 children in kindergarten, 1st, and 2nd grade to test hypotheses derived from the proposition that teachers criticize low-expectation students in order to control their personal reinforcement schedules. Results show the following: (a) Teachers' expectations for and perceptions of control over student performance were found to be significantly positively related, even when student sex and IQ (as assessed by the Metropolitan Achievement Test) were controlled. (b) The removal of academic criticism in the 1st- and 2nd-grade classes increased academic initiations by highly criticized students relative to other students. (c) Ss' perceptions of the covariation between effort and outcome was negatively related to amount of criticism received after seeking out the teacher for academic reasons. It is suggested that because low-expectation students' feedback may be less contingent on the outcome of a specific performance, low-expectation students become less motivated to perform well in the future. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The student as Pygmalion: Effect of student expectation on the teacher.

Two experiments examined the possibility that student expectations regarding a teacher's competence can be communicated to the teacher and bring about the expected behavior. In Exp I, 39 female undergraduates acting as students were administered a lesson by a teacher (confederate) who the students expected to be either effective or ineffective. Results show significant differences in student attitudes, performance, and nonverbal behavior according to expectation. In Exp II, confederates acting as students emitted either positive or negative nonverbal behavior toward 40 female undergraduates acting as their teachers. There were significant effects on teachers' attitudes and behavior. Moreover, ratings of the teacher by judges showed teachers were rated as being more adequate under conditions of positive student nonverbal behavior than negative nonverbal behavior. (18 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Self-efficacy, outcome expectations, and fantasies as predictors of alcoholics'' postreatment drinking

The usefulness of distinguishing between alcoholic patients' expectations and their fantasies about treatment outcome was examined. Results at 6 and 12 months follow-up did not support the results of research with nonalcoholic participants which related better outcomes to a combination of positive expectations and negative fantasies about future drink-related situations. Higher self-efficacy expectancy at intake, however, was associated with better clinical outcome. Findings supported Bandura's (1986) contention that outcome expectations add little information on prediction beyond that explained by self-efficacy expectancy. The clinical implications of these results are discussed.     

Teacher influences on student achievement.

Reviews research that indicates that students achieve more when their teachers emphasize academic objectives in establishing expectations and allocating time, use effective management strategies to ensure that academic learning time is maximized, pace students through the curriculum briskly but in small steps that allow high rates of success, and adapt curriculum materials based on their knowledge of students' characteristics. Qualitative research also indicates that teachers differ in how they perform such instructional behaviors as giving information, asking questions, and providing feedback. Context-specific effects are noted with respect to grade level, socioeconomic status (SES), ability and affect, and teacher intentions. It is concluded that any attempt to improve student achievement must be based on the development of effective teaching behavior. (66 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of expectancy statements on academic performance of high- and low-ability college students.

Notes that expectancy theory holds that performance is a multiplicative function of ability and motivation-motivation being determined by individual expectations and perceptions of a situation. The role of expectations in determining academic performance was examined in a 2 (ability levels) * 2 (high-expectancy vs control groups) * 4 (test period) design. Ss were 56 undergraduates. A significant main effect due to ability and a significant interaction of ability, expectancy, and test period were found. High expectancy produced slight performance increments for all 4 test periods for high-ability Ss. High expectancy in low-ability groups resulted in higher performance than control groups for the 1st 2 test periods but lower performance for the last 2 test periods. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Causal influence of teachers' expectations on children's academic performance: A cross-lagged panel analysis.

Investigated the causal interplay of teachers' expectations and children's academic performance. In a 4-yr longitudinal study of 4,300 British beginning elementary school children, a series of cross-lagged panel correlational analyses indicated that the preponderant cause in the achievement–expectancy relationship was that of teachers' expectations causing children's achievements to an extent appreciably exceeding that to which children's performance impinged on teachers' attitudes. Teachers' evaluations of children's social performance affected later achievement to an extent exceeding that attributable to academic expectations. (38 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Mediation of interpersonal expectancy effects: Counselor's tone of voice.

Investigated the role of tone of voice as a possible factor in the mediation of naturally occurring rather than experimentally produced interpersonal expectancy effects. 10 camp counselors (aged 18–22 yrs) talked about children at camp whom they believed to have high social ability (high social expectancy), high athletic ability (high athletic expectancy), low social ability (low social expectancy), and low athletic ability (low athletic expectancy) in tape-recorded interviews. The counselors themselves were rated by experts at the camp on 8 competence dimensions. 10 judges (5 male and 5 female undergraduates) rated the tone of voice (content-filtered recording) of these interviews. Judges rated the counselors' tone of voice as warmer and less hostile when talking about children for whom they had high expectations than when talking about children for whom they had low expectations. Nonverbal expectancy effects were also detected more accurately by male than female judges and when the counselors talked about social rather than athletic abilities. Counselors who displayed less competent and more ineffective attributes were more prone to biasing effects as reflected in tone of voice, whereas counselors who displayed more competent and more effective attributes generally did not show differential expectancy effects as reflected in their tone of voice. (39 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Predicting homework effort: Support for a domain-specific, multilevel homework model.

According to the domain-specific, multilevel homework model proposed in the present study, students' homework effort is influenced by expectancy and value beliefs, homework characteristics, parental homework behavior, and conscientiousness. The authors used structural equation modeling and hierarchical linear modeling analyses to test the model in 2 studies with 414 and 1,501 8th graders, respectively. In line with the authors' assumptions, most intercorrelations observed between corresponding homework variables across 2 school subjects were small to moderate, conscientiousness and homework motivation proved to be strong predictors of homework effort, and perceived homework quality varied considerably between classes and predicted homework motivation and behavior. Findings highlight the need to take into account the domain specificity and multilevel character of homework variables when analyzing students' homework behavior. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Research on the self-fulfilling prophecy and teacher expectations.

Reviews the literature on self-fulfilling prophecy and teacher expectations and concludes that a minority of teachers have major expectation effects on their students' achievement. However, such effects are minimal for most teachers because their expectations are generally accurate and open to corrective feedback. It is difficult to predict the effects of teachers' expectations, even with knowledge of their accuracy and the degree of rigidity with which they are held. Expectations interact with beliefs about learning and instruction to determine teacher behavior; similar expectations may lead to different behavior. Students will also differ in their interpretation of and response to teacher behavior; similar behavior may produce different student outcomes. (106 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effect of expectancy inductions on rejected children's acceptance by unfamiliar peers.

Examined the role of interpersonal expectations in rejected children's social difficulties by inducing a positive expectancy prior to their joining unfamiliar peers and assessing whether this influenced their group entry behavior and the opinions that new peers formed of them. Rejected boys receiving the expectancy induction were preferred by new peers over control, rejected boys, but no behavioral effects were found. Rejected girls who received the induction were again better liked than controls and behaved more competently. These results indicate that rejected children can make better impressions on peers when they expect interpersonal success and suggest that rejected children's interpersonal expectations should be considered in interventions designed to improve their peer relationships. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex differences in math achievement: Toward a model of academic choice.

Competence in mathematics has long been identified as a critical skill directly related to educational and occupational choices. Yet compared with men, fewer women elect to take advanced level mathematics courses and to enter mathematically-oriented careers. The present article summarizes the common explanations of this problem and then integrates this research into a theoretical model first proposed by J. E. Parsons et al (in press) for studying students' academic choices and decisions. Drawing on concepts used in decision-making, achievement, and attribution research, this psychological model links academic choice to expectations of success and the subjective value of a particular course. In addition, the model specifies the relations among a set of other variables that are believed to mediate individual differences in both students' expectations of success and their perceptions of the relative value of various academic options. The utility of the model for increasing understanding of course enrollment patterns and career decisions and for designing appropriate intervention strategies is discussed. (3 p ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The teacher and student as Pygmalions: Joint effects of teacher and student expectations.

Examined the effects of teachers' expectations about students and students' expectations about teachers on the performance and attitudes of both participants. 60 female undergraduates were designated as teachers and were led to expect a high- or low-ability student, and a further 60 Ss acting as students were independently led to expect a teacher of low or high competence. Teachers and students were then randomly paired in a teaching session. Results show that student performance was a function of the teacher's expectations. In addition, teachers' attitudes and rated competence were affected by their expectation regarding the student, and students' attitudes were affected by their expectation about the teacher. (10 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Mothers' academic gender stereotypes and education-related beliefs about sons and daughters in African American families.

The role of African American mothers' academic gender stereotype endorsement in shaping achievement-related expectations for and perceptions of their own children was examined. Mothers (N = 334) of 7th and 8th graders completed measures of expectations for their children's future educational attainment, perceptions of their children's academic competence, and academic gender stereotypes. Consistent with hypotheses, mothers held less favorable expectations for sons and perceived sons to be less academically competent than daughters. In addition, mothers reported stereotypes favoring girls over boys in academic domains; stereotype endorsement, in turn, was related to mothers' educational expectations for and beliefs about the academic competence of their own children, even with youths' actual achievement controlled. Negative stereotypes about the academic abilities of African American boys may create a negative feedback loop, thereby contributing to the maintenance of the gender gap in African Americans' educational outcomes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

College seniors' theory of their academic motivation.

College seniors participated in an ethnographic interview study about their academic motivations. It was found that grades and graduation are 2 primary distal target goals that motivate their academic efforts during the senior year. A variety of proximal factors were also reported to affect the seniors' motivation. These factors can be divided into students' internal and external factors. Among the internal factors are student characteristics (e.g., social class, expectations) and student beliefs (e.g., belief about control, belief about learning and mastery), whereas the external factors comprise academic-related factors (i.e., course-, examination-, and assignment-related characteristics, reward, and feedback), social factors (i.e., instructors, family members, and peers), general college environment (i.e., physical environment, academic associations, and internship/volunteer opportunities), and extracurricular activities (i.e., fraternities/sororities and sports participation). These results suggest that there is much to learn about academic motivation during the college years. In particular, there is a need for research employing methodologies other than quantitative, survey-based method that can capture the complexities of motivation during college. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)