A simple void node and loop‐free three‐dimensional routing protocol for multi‐hop wireless networks

Wireless networks are now very essential part for modern ubiquitous communication systems. The design of efficient routing and scheduling techniques for such networks have gained importance to ensure reliable communication. Most of the currently proposed geographic routing protocols are designed for 2D spatial distribution of user nodes, although in many practical scenarios user nodes may be deployed in 3D space also. In this paper, we propose 3D routing protocols for multihop wireless networks that may be implemented in two different ways depending on how the routing paths are computed. When the routing paths to different user nodes from the base station in the wireless network are computed by the base station, we call it centralized protocol (3DMA‐CS). A distributed routing (3DMA‐DS) protocol is implemented when respective routing path of each user node to the base station is computed by the user node. In both of these protocols, the user (base station) selects the relay node to forward packets in the direction of destination, from the set of its neighbours, which makes minimum angle with the reference line drawn from user (base station) to the base station (user), within its transmission range. The proposed protocols are free from looping problem and can solve the void node problem (VNP) of multihop wireless networks. Performance analysis of the proposed protocol is shown by calculating end‐to‐end throughput, average path length, end‐to‐end delay, and energy consumption of each routing path through extensive simulation under different network densities and transmission ranges.     

A gradient‐based multiple‐path routing protocol for low duty‐cycled wireless sensor networks

Routing in a low duty‐cycled wireless sensor network (WSN) has attracted much attention recently because of the challenge that low duty‐cycled sleep scheduling brings to the design of efficient distributed routing protocols for such networks. In a low duty‐cycled WSN, a big problem is how to design an efficient distributed routing protocol, which uses only local network state information while achieving low end‐to‐end (E2E) packet delivery delay and also high packet delivery efficiency. In this paper, we study low duty‐cycled WSNs wherein sensor nodes adopt pseudorandom sleep scheduling for energy saving. The objective of this paper is to design an efficient distributed routing protocol with low overhead. For this purpose, we design a simple but efficient hop‐by‐hop routing protocol, which integrates the ideas of multipath routing and gradient‐based routing for improved routing performance. We conduct extensive simulations, and the results demonstrate the high performance of the proposed protocol in terms of E2E packet delivery latency and packet delivery efficiency as compared with existing protocols. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Energy‐aware geographic routing in wireless sensor networks with anchor nodes

Energy efficiency has become an important design consideration in geographic routing protocols for wireless sensor networks because the sensor nodes are energy constrained and battery recharging is usually not feasible. However, numerous existing energy‐aware geographic routing protocols are energy‐inefficient when the detouring mode is involved in the routing. Furthermore, most of them rarely or at most implicitly take into account the energy efficiency in the advance. In this paper, we present a novel energy‐aware geographic routing (EAGR) protocol that attempts to minimize the energy consumption for end‐to‐end data delivery. EAGR adaptively uses an existing geographic routing protocol to find an anchor list based on the projection distance of nodes for guiding packet forwarding. Each node holding the message utilizes geographic information, the characteristics of energy consumption, and the metric of advanced energy cost to make forwarding decisions, and dynamically adjusts its transmission power to just reach the selected node. Simulation results demonstrate that our scheme exhibits higher energy efficiency, smaller end‐to‐end delay, and better packet delivery ratio compared to other geographic routing protocols. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Opportunistic routing with in-network aggregation for asynchronous duty-cycled wireless sensor networks

We propose an opportunistic routing protocol for wireless sensor networks designed to work on top of an asynchronous duty-cycled MAC. Opportunistic routing can be very effective when used with asynchronous duty-cycled MAC because expected waiting time of senders—when they stay on active mode and transmit packet streams—is significantly reduced. If there are multiple sources, energy consumption can be reduced further through in-network aggregation. The idea proposed in this paper is to temporarily increase duty cycle ratio of nodes holding packets, in order to increase chance of in-network aggregation and thus reduce energy consumption and extend network lifetime. In the proposed protocol called opportunistic routing with in-network aggregation (ORIA), whenever a node generates a packet or receives a packet to forward, it waits for a certain amount of time before transmitting the packet. Meanwhile, the node increases its duty cycle ratio, hoping that it receives packets from other nodes and aggregate them into a single packet. Simulation results show that ORIA saves considerable amount of energy compared to general opportunistic routing protocols, as well as tree-based protocols.     

A kind of novel VPF‐based energy‐balanced routing strategy for wireless mesh network

Wireless mesh network (WMN) can sense information and realize end‐network transmission. It consists of numerous wireless sensors, the energy and communication ability of which are limited. A kind of novel VPF‐based energy‐balanced routing strategy for WMN has been presented in this paper. Most of the existing energy‐efficient routing strategy always forwards packets along the minimum energy path to the sink to merely minimize energy consumption, which causes an unbalanced distribution of residual energy among sensor nodes, and eventually results in a network partition. We design the energy‐balanced routing strategy by setting up a mixed virtual potential field in terms of depth and energy by using the physical potential concept. The strategy can force packets to move toward the sink through the dense energy area and protect the nodes, which has relatively low residual energy. By comparing to the other energy‐efficient routing strategy in our designed scenarios, the experimental results show that energy balance and throughput can be improved. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Sparsely‐deployed relay node assisted routing algorithm for vehicular ad hoc networks

In this paper, we study the issue of routing in a vehicular ad hoc network with the assistance of sparsely deployed auxiliary relay nodes at some road intersections in a city. In such a network, vehicles keep moving, and relay nodes are static. The purpose of introducing auxiliary relay nodes is to reduce the end‐to‐end packet delivery delay. We propose a sparsely deployed relay node assisted routing (SRR) algorithm, which differs from existing routing protocols on how routing decisions are made at road intersections where static relay nodes are available such that relay nodes can temporarily buffer a data packet if the packet is expected to meet a vehicle leading to a better route with high probability in certain time than the current vehicles. We further calculate the joint probability for such a case to happen on the basis of the local vehicle traffic distribution and also the turning probability at an intersection. The detailed procedure of the protocol is presented. The SRR protocol is easy to implement and requires little extra routing information. Simulation results show that SRR can achieve high performance in terms of end‐to‐end packet delivery latency and delivery ratio when compared with existing protocols. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Implementation of depth‐based routing and its enhancement in AquaSim–Next Generation for underwater wireless sensor networks

In the last decade, underwater wireless sensor networks have been widely studied because of their peculiar aspects that distinguish them from common terrestrial wireless networks. Their applications range from environmental monitoring to military defense. The definition of efficient routing protocols in underwater sensor networks is a challenging topic of research because of the intrinsic characteristics of these networks, such as the need of handling the node mobility and the difficulty in balancing the energy consumed by the nodes. Depth‐based routing protocol is an opportunistic routing protocol for underwater sensor networks, which provides good performance both under high and low node mobility scenarios. The main contribution of our work is presenting a novel simulator for studying depth‐based routing protocol and its variants as well as novel routing protocols. Our simulator is based on AquaSim–Next Generation, which is a specialized tool for studying underwater networks. With our work, we improve the state of the art of underwater routing protocol simulators by implementing, among other features, a detailed cross‐layer communication and an accurate model of the operational modes of acoustic modem and their energy consumption. The simulator is open source and freely downloadable. Moreover, we propose a novel and completely distributed routing protocol, named residual energy–depth‐based routing. It takes into account the residual energy at the nodes' batteries to select the forwarder nodes and improve the network lifetime by providing a more uniform energy consumption among them. We compare its performance with that of depth‐based routing protocol and a receiver‐based routing protocol implementing a probabilistic opportunistic forwarding scheme.     

Multi‐cost routing for energy and capacity constrained wireless mesh networks

We propose a class of novel energy‐efficient multi‐cost routing algorithms for wireless mesh networks, and evaluate their performance. In multi‐cost routing, a vector of cost parameters is assigned to each network link, from which the cost vectors of candidate paths are calculated using appropriate operators. In the end these parameters are combined in various optimization functions, corresponding to different routing algorithms, for selecting the optimal path. We evaluate the performance of the proposed energy‐aware multi‐cost routing algorithms under two models. In the network evacuation model, the network starts with a number of packets that have to be transmitted and an amount of energy per node, and the objective is to serve the packets in the smallest number of steps, or serve as many packets as possible before the energy is depleted. In the dynamic one‐to‐one communication model, new data packets are generated continuously and nodes are capable of recharging their energy periodically, over an infinite time horizon, and we are interested in the maximum achievable steady‐state throughput, the packet delay, and the energy consumption. Our results show that energy‐aware multi‐cost routing increases the lifetime of the network and achieves better overall network performance than other approaches. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

A cluster‐based fault‐tolerant routing protocol for wireless sensor networks

Energy conservation and fault tolerance are two critical issues in the deployment of wireless sensor networks (WSNs). Many cluster‐based fault‐tolerant routing protocols have been proposed for energy conservation and network lifetime maximization in WSNs. However, these protocols suffer from high frequency of re‐clustering as well as extra energy consumption to tolerate failures and consider only some very normal parameters to form clusters without any verification of the energy sufficiency for data routing. Therefore, this paper proposes a cluster‐based fault‐tolerant routing protocol referred as CFTR. This protocol allows higher energy nodes to become Cluster Heads (CHs) and operate multiple rounds to diminish the frequency of re‐clustering. Additionally, for the sake to get better energy efficiency and balancing, we introduce a cost function that considers during cluster formation energy cost from sensor node to CH, energy cost from CH to sink, and another significant parameter, namely, number of cluster members in previous round. Further, the proposed CFTR takes care of nodes, which have no CH in their communication range. Also, it introduces a routing algorithm in which the decision of next hop CH selection is based on a cost function conceived to select routes with sufficient energy for data transfer and distribute uniformly the overall data‐relaying load among the CHs. As well, a low‐overhead algorithm to tolerate the sudden failure of CHs is proposed. We perform extensive simulations on CFTR and compare their results with those of two recent existing protocols to demonstrate its superiority in terms of different metrics.     

An asynchronous low‐power medium access control protocol for wireless sensor networks

Duty cycling is a fundamental approach used in contention‐based medium access control (MAC) protocols for wireless sensor networks (WSNs) to reduce power consumption in sensor nodes. Existing duty cycle‐based MAC protocols use either scheduling or low‐power listening (LPL) to reduce unnecessary energy lost caused by idle listening and overhearing. This paper presents a new asynchronous duty‐cycled MAC protocol for WSN. It introduces a novel dual preamble sampling (DPS) approach to efficiently coordinate channel access among nodes. DPS combines LPL with a short‐strobed preamble approach to significantly reduce the idle‐listening issue in existing asynchronous protocols. We provide detailed analysis of the energy consumption by using well‐known energy models and compare our work with B‐MAC and X‐MAC, two most popular asynchronous duty cycle‐based MAC protocols for WSNs. We also present experimental results based on NS‐2 simulations. We show that depending on the traffic load and preamble length, the proposed MAC protocol improves energy consumption significantly without degrading network performances in terms of delivery ratio and latency. For example, for a traffic rate of 0.1 packets/s and a preamble length of 0.1 s, the average improvement in energy consumption is about 154%. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Cross‐layer design for topology control and routing in MANETs

A mobile ad hoc network (MANET) is a self‐organized and adaptive wireless network formed by dynamically gathering mobile nodes. Since the topology of the network is constantly changing, the issue of routing packets and energy conservation become challenging tasks. In this paper, we propose a cross‐layer design that jointly considers routing and topology control taking mobility and interference into account for MANETs. We called the proposed protocol as Mobility‐aware Routing and Interference‐aware Topology control (MRIT) protocol. The main objective of the proposed protocol is to increase the network lifetime, reduce energy consumption, and find stable end‐to‐end routes for MANETs. We evaluate the performance of the proposed protocol by comprehensively simulating a set of random MANET environments. The results show that the proposed protocol reduces energy consumption rate, end‐to‐end delay, interference while preserving throughput and network connectivity. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

EFFORT: energy‐efficient opportunistic routing technology in wireless sensor networks

The utilization of limited energy in wireless sensor networks (WSNs) is the critical concern, whereas the effectiveness of routing mechanisms substantially influence energy usage. We notice that two common issues in existing specific routing schemes for WSNs are that (i) a path may traverse through a specific set of sensors, draining out their energy quickly and (ii) packet retransmissions over unreliable links may consume energy significantly. In this paper, we develop an energy‐efficient routing scheme (called EFFORT) to maximize the amount of data gathered in WSNs before the end of network lifetime. By exploiting two natural advantages of opportunistic routing, that is, the path diversity and the improvement of transmission reliability, we propose a new metric that enables each sensor to determine a suitable set of forwarders as well as their relay priorities. We then present EFFORT, a routing protocol that utilizes energy efficiently and prolongs network lifetime based on the proposed routing metric. Simulation results show that EFFORT significantly outperforms other routing protocols. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Topology control‐based collaborative multicast routing algorithm with minimum energy consumption

This paper studies the multicast routing problem in the multi‐hop wireless network. We exploit topology control to put forward a multicast routing algorithm with minimum energy consumption. First, network nodes are classified as different clusters. Then, the end‐to‐end multicast routing is appropriately built by using the cooperation among clusters and in each cluster and by minimizing the energy consumption. Unlike previous methods, we employ the appropriate cooperation among/in clusters and the optimal cross‐layer design to attain the information from the different layers and the different nodes. In a result, on the basis of the information, the needed clusters of nodes are correctly created. This is helpful to avoid clustering blindly network nodes and to reduce computational overheads. Simulation results show that the proposed algorithm is promising and effective. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

An opportunistic routing mechanism for real‐time voice service in mobile ad hoc networks

The opportunistic routing mechanism can use several lossy broadcast links to support reliable transmission. In this paper, a simple opportunistic routing mechanism for real‐time multimedia services is proposed. This mechanism is based on the dynamic source routing protocol with some modifications, multiple route request, and route reply messages are used to construct the forwarder list, and the nodes within the forwarder list forward the packets which they overhear. The forwarder list is placed on the packet header in the form of a Bloom filter, which will restrict the size of the forwarder list to a constant value. There are no strict scheduling mechanisms for the forwarding order of the forwarder nodes, thus our opportunistic routing mechanism can be scalable for multiple simultaneous flows. Simulations show that our mechanism can effectively decrease the transmission times and the amount of the control messages for each packet and reduce the end‐to‐end delay for real‐time voice service, the quality of service for these services can be supported well over the unstable wireless channel. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

EEAODR: An energy‐efficient ad hoc on‐demand routing protocol for mobile ad hoc networks

Mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs) are characterized by random, multi‐hop topologies that do not have a centralized coordinating entity or a fixed infrastructure that may change rapidly over time. In addition, mobile nodes operate with portable and finite power sources. In this work, we propose an energy‐efficient routing protocol for MANETs to minimize energy consumption and increase the network's consistency. Traditional works mainly focused on the shortest path‐based schemes to minimize energy, which might result into network failure because some nodes might exhaust fast as they are used repetitively, while some other nodes might not be used at all. This can lead to energy imbalance and to network life reduction. We propose an energy‐efficient ad hoc on‐demand routing protocol that balances energy load among nodes so that a minimum energy level is maintained among nodes and the network life increases. We focused on increasing the network longevity by distributing energy consumption in the network. We also compared the simulation results with a popular existing on‐demand routing protocol in this area, AODV, to establish the superiority of our approach. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

An efficient online‐battery aware geographic routing algorithm for wireless sensor networks

Wireless sensor networks (WSNs) are being used in a wide variety of critical applications such as military and health‐care applications. Such networks, which are composed of sensor nodes with limited memory capacity, limited processing capabilities, and most importantly limited energy supply, require routing protocols that take into consideration these constraints. The aim of this paper is to provide an efficient power aware routing algorithm for WSNs that guarantees QOS and at the same time minimizes energy consumption by calculating the remaining battery capacity of nodes and taking advantage of the battery recovery process. We present an online‐battery aware geographic routing algorithm. To show the effectiveness of our approach, we simulated our algorithm in ns2 and compared it with greedy perimeter stateless routing for wireless networks and battery‐aware routing for streaming data transmissions in WSNs. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Fuzzy chessboard clustering and artificial bee colony routing method for energy‐efficient heterogeneous wireless sensor networks

Energy is an extremely critical resource for battery‐powered wireless sensor networks (WSNs), thus making energy‐efficient protocol design a key challenging problem. However, uneven energy consumption is an inherent problem in WSNs caused by multi‐hop routing and many‐to‐one traffic pattern among sensors. In this paper, we therefore propose a new clustering method called fuzzy chessboard clustering (FFC), which is capable to overcome the bottleneck problem and addressing the uneven energy consumption problem in heterogeneous WSNs. We also propose an energy‐efficient routing method called artificial bee colony routing method (ABCRM) to find the optimal routing path for the heterogeneous WSNs. ABCRM seeks to investigate the problems of balancing energy consumption and maximization of network lifetime. To demonstrate the effectiveness of FCC‐ABCRM in terms of lessening end‐to‐end delay, balancing energy consumption, and maximization of heterogeneous network lifetime, we compare our method with three approaches namely, chessboard clustering approach, PEGASIS, and LEACH. Simulation results show that the network lifetime achieved by FCC‐ABCRM could be increased by nearly 25%, 45%, and 60% more than that obtained by chessboard clustering, PEGASIS, and LEACH, respectively. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Energy‐efficient void avoidance geographic routing protocol for underwater sensor networks

Underwater wireless sensor networks (UWSNs) consist of a group of sensors that send the information to the sonobuoys at the surface level. Void area, however, is one of the challenges faced by UWSNs. When a sensor falls in a void area of communication, it causes problems such as high latency, power consumption, or packet loss. In this paper, an energy‐efficient void avoidance geographic routing protocol (EVAGR) has been proposed to handle the void area with low amount of energy consumption. In this protocol, a suitable set of forwarding nodes is selected using a weight function, and the data packets are forwarded to the nodes inside the set. The weight function includes the consumed energy and the depth of the candidate neighboring nodes, and candidate neighboring node selection is based on the packet advancement of the neighboring nodes toward the sonobuoys. Extensive simulation experiments were performed to evaluate the efficiency of the proposed protocol. Simulation results revealed that the proposed protocol can effectively achieve better performance in terms of energy consumption, packet drop, and routing overhead compared with the similar routing protocol.     

An altruism‐based trust‐dependent message forwarding protocol for opportunistic networks

In opportunistic networks (OppNets), which are characterized by intermittent end‐to‐end connections, the messages are routed in a store‐carry‐and‐forward fashion using the locally inferred knowledge about the behavior of nodes. As such, most OppNets routing protocols use social metrics that are dependent on the nodes' past information. But the participation of nodes in the message forwarding process is not guaranteed without incentivizing them because most nodes are reluctant in sharing their private resources for public uses. In this paper, some socially derived psychological attributes of a node are introduced to ensure their trustworthy participation in the message forwarding process, leading to the design of an altruism‐dependent trust‐based data forwarding mechanism for OppNets (called ATDTN). In this protocol, each node is associated with a dynamically changing altruism value representing its trust in the network, which is used to determine its status with regard to its participation in message forwarding. Through trace‐driven simulations using the ONE simulator, it is shown that ATDTN outperforms IronMan and SimBet protocols for routing in OppNets (respectively, 18% and 48% improvement), in terms of delivery ratio, end‐to‐end delay, overhead count, and average number of hops, under varying buffer size and time‐to‐live.     

RAD‐EI: A routing attack detection scheme for edge‐based Internet of Things environment

Internet of Things (IoT) offers various types of application services in different domains, such as “smart infrastructure, health‐care, critical infrastructure, and intelligent transportation system.” The name edge computing signifies a corner or edge in a network at which traffic enters or exits from the network. In edge computing, the data analysis task happens very close to the IoT smart sensors and devices. Edge computing can also speed up the analysis process, which allows decision makers to take action within a short duration of time. However, edge‐based IoT environment has several security and privacy issues similar to those for the cloud‐based IoT environment. Various types of attacks, such as “replay, man‐in‐the middle, impersonation, password guessing, routing attack, and other denial of service attacks” may be possible in edge‐based IoT environment. The routing attacker nodes have the capability to deviate and disrupt the normal flow of traffic. These malicious nodes do not send packets (messages) to the edge node and only send packets to its neighbor collaborator attacker nodes. Therefore, in the presence of such kind of routing attack, edge node does not get the information or sometimes it gets the partial information. This further affects the overall performance of communication of edge‐based IoT environment. In the presence of such an attack, the “throughput of the network” decreases, “end‐to‐end delay” increases, “packet delivery ratio” decreases, and other parameters also get affected. Consequently, it is important to provide solution for such kind of attack. In this paper, we design an intrusion detection scheme for the detection of routing attack in edge‐based IoT environment called as RAD‐EI. We simulate RAD‐EI using the widely used “NS2 simulator” to measure different network parameters. Furthermore, we provide the security analysis of RAD‐EI to prove its resilience against routing attacks. RAD‐EI accomplishes around 95.0% “detection rate” and 1.23% “false positive rate” that are notably better than other related existing schemes. In addition, RAD‐EI is efficient in terms of computation and communication costs. As a result, RAD‐EI is a good match for some critical and sensitive applications, such as smart security and surveillance system.