英国可再生能源义务政策最新进展及对我国的启示

从90年代的非化石燃料义务政策到2002年以来的可再生能源义务政策,英国一直致力于通过市场配额机制推动可再生能源发展。但由于政策机制设计复杂,不确定性较大,以及罚金返还导致的市场投机等问题,无法拉动足够投资保障可再生能源快速发展。2011年,结合碳减排目标,英国政府计划推出一揽子电力市场改革方案(EMR),其重点之一是可再生能源义务逐步向差价合约固定电价政策转移。本文通过综述英国可再生能源义务政策演变历程,解析评价可再生能源证书市场运行机制和实施效果,并介绍英国电力市场改革方向,以及对我国的启示。     

我国可再生能源配额政策的解读与发展方向分析

传统的固定电价政策以财政补贴为主要手段,侧重于对发电侧的鼓励,当可再生能源发电达到一定规模时,就会造成大规模的资源浪费,导致"弃风"、"弃光"现象,同时也使国家财政负担加重。2018年国家能源局发布了3次关于可再生能源电力配额制的征求意见稿,主要目的在于有效解决可再生能源的消纳问题。可再生能源配额政策是电力市场发展到相对成熟阶段的产物,也是产权理论在政策层面的具体应用。该项政策设计有利于构建有效率的电力市场体系,发展能源利用技术,优化现有能源结构。但由于我国可再生能源配额政策仍处于探索阶段,政策设计在目标设定、运作机制、惩罚措施等方面均存在诸多不完善之处,需要借鉴国外先进经验。我国的可再生能源配额政策设计还需要进一步完善和细化,解决好与现有固定电价补贴政策、绿色电力证书制度的衔接问题,制定更为长远、细致、稳定的配额目标,鼓励多样化的可再生能源发电,设立强有力的惩罚措施与监管机构等。     

世界可再生能源支持政策变迁与趋势

可再生能源支持政策包括研发补贴、验证补贴、设备引入补助、售电补助等。本文以售电补助为对象,重点介绍了世界可再生能源支持政策的变迁与发展趋势。目前各国实施的可再生能源支持政策可分为可再生能源电力配额制(RPS)和固定价格制或上网电价补贴政策(FIT)。美国、英国、澳大利亚、韩国和日本等广泛采用RPS,德国为首的欧洲和最近的日本采用FIT。最终形成了以美国为首的RPS和以德国为首的FIP世界两大可再生能源支持政策体系。RPS强制规定,可再生能源发电在总发电量中所占比率,要求电网公司对其全额收购,对不能满足配额要求的责任人处以相应惩罚。价格、供应业者、供应条件等由市场决定。可再生能源证书(REC)制度,是基于RPS的政策工具,REC与RPS配套运行,形成低成本可再生能源电力顺序进入市场的机制。德国的FIT制度,发展演变最终形成FIP(奖励+市场价格)制度。FIP废弃了FIT发电量全量义务收购,并要求可再生能源发电业者直接进入市场销售,对补助水准的确定,则采用竞标委以市场价格发现功能。FIP要求发电业者适应市场供需,参与市场竞争,担负取决于其售电能力的事业合算性风险。同时政府规定奖励售电价格长期维持一定水平,为发电业者提供了长期稳定性。有关文件表明,我国也将实施配额制,推动可再生能源发展。     

美国加州可再生能源配额制及对我国的启示

配额制本质上是一种对可再生能源开发的激励机制,它的实施需要具备一定的前提条件,目前仍处于不断探索和发展阶段。配额制的实质是以最低成本开发可再生能源,它通常需要依托一个绿色证书市场。任何配额制基本上都包含了配额承担主体及合格的发电类型、配额目标的确定及分解、运作机制、成本分摊与惩罚措施等内容。世界上没有任何两个国家或地区的配额制是完全一致的,均是根据本国或本地区的实际情况而制定。加利福尼亚州是美国可再生能源发展较快,也是最早实施配额制的联邦州之一。加州配额制的配额承担主体主要是为终端用户供电的电力企业;运作机制是通过绿色证书来代替物理计量,以证书数量来反映配额承担主体的履约情况;实现配额义务的成本是通过终端销售电价疏导出去的。这些与英国和日本的配额制相同,而差异性体现在配额目标形式不同、指标分解原则不同以及对不同类型可再生能源的激励程度不同。我国在可再生能源配额制设计中需要关注与现行可再生能源政策的衔接、地区配额指标的差异化设计、地方政府的责任、可再生能源电量的计量以及保障措施等问题。     

论我国可再生能源配额制的法制建构

可再生能源配额制是推动可再生能源发展的有效制度,是实现可再生能源发展目标的量化、强制性以及与之配套的市场化措施。2006年制定的《可再生能源法》及2009年修改的《可再生能源法》已经为可再生能源配额制在我国立足生根营造制度环境。我国先后草拟可再生能源配额制的若干文件,但是迟迟未能完全落实。我国应当全面设计可再生能源配额义务的承担主体、配额分配机制、配额考核、监管以及基于配额制的绿色证书交易制度,从而保障我国可再生能源的可持续发展。     

福建支持可再生能源规模化发展的法律制度选择

本文阐述了建立推动可再生能源开发利用的法律制度的必要性;介绍了国际上正在流行的可再生能源电力配额制度和固定电价制度;根据国际经验和省情认为固定电价制度是福建省建立法律制度的最佳选择;提出了福建实施固定电价制度应解决的问题。     

世界典型国家可再生能源政策比较分析及对我国的启示

本文回顾了美国、加拿大、德国、英国、丹麦、日本、巴西、印度和中国等典型国家的可再生能源发展历程,系统地介绍了这些国家的可再生能源激励政策,比较分析了各国政策的实施经验,以期为我国可再生能源政策的进一步完善提供决策参考。     

我国启动可再生能源发电费用分摊制度

国家发改委、国家电监会发布《关于2006年度可再生能源电价补贴和配额交易方案的通知》（以下简称《通知》，实施可再生能源电价补贴和配额交易方案，标志着我国可再生能源发电费用分摊制度的正式启动。     

可再生能源绿色电力证书交易制度

正可再生能源配额制度是一项着眼于市场的制度,而不是着眼于规划的制度。因此,可再生能源配额制度另外一个重要的设计要素是可再生能源绿色电力证书交易制度。可再生能源发电企业生产的电力全部会获得绿证,该绿证可以在市场上自由交易。这样一来,购电主体可以有多种途径来达到配额要求:它可以直接购买可再生能源发电企业发出的电力;当电力输送存在问题的时候,它完全可以从可再生能源发电企业购买绿证,以满足配额要求。这一制度让可再生能源电力具备了两种     

综合类

可再生能源发电分摊制实施近日,发改委、电监会发布了《关于2006年度可再生能源电价补贴和配额交易方案的通知》(简称《通知》),这标志着中国可再生能源发电费用分摊制度正式实施。     

Opportunities and challenges for renewable energy policy in China

Renewable energy is the inevitable choice for sustainable economic growth, for the harmonious coexistence of human and environment as well as for the sustainable development. Government support is the key and initial power for developing renewable energy. In this article, an overall review has been conducted on renewable energy development policy (including laws and regulations, economic encouragement, technical research and development, industrialized support and government model projects, etc.) in China. On this basis, a systematic analysis has been conducted on the disadvantages of renewable energy development policy. On the point of long-term effective system for renewable energy development, a series of policy advice has been offered, such as strengthening the policy coordination, enhancing regional policy innovation, echoing with clean development mechanism, implementing process management, constructing market investment and financing system. It is expected that the above advices could be helpful to ever-improvement of renewable energy development policy.     

Renewable electricity in Sweden: an analysis of policy and regulations

This study aims to analyse the developments in renewable energy policy making in Sweden. It assesses the energy policy context, changes in the choice of policy instruments, and provides explanations behind policy successes and failures. Swedish renewable energy policy has been developing in a context of uncertainty around nuclear issues. While there has been made a political decision to replace nuclear power with renewables, there is a lack of consensus about the pace of phasing out nuclear power due to perceived negative impacts on industrial competitiveness. Such uncertainty had an effect in the formulation of renewable energy policy. Biomass and wind power are the main options for renewable electricity production. Throughout 1990s, the combined effect of different policy instruments has stimulated the growth of these two renewable sources. Yet, both biomass and wind power are still a minor contributor in the total electricity generation. Lack of strong government commitment due to uncertainty around nuclear issues is a crucial factor. Short-term subsidies have been preferred rather than open-ended subsidy mechanisms, causing intervals without subsidies and interruption to development. Other factors are such as lack of incentives from the major electricity companies and administrative obstacles. The taxation system has been successful in fostering an expansion of biomass for heating but hindered a similar development in the electricity sector. The quota system adopted in 2003 is expected to create high demand on biomass but does not favour wind power. The renewable energy aims are unlikely to be changed. Yet, the future development of renewable energy policies especially for high-cost technologies will again depend strongly on nuclear policies, which are still unstable and might affect the pace of renewable energy development.     

Basic concepts for designing renewable electricity support aiming at a full-scale transition by 2050

Renewable electricity supply is a crucial factor in the realization of a low-carbon energy economy. The understanding is growing that a full turn-over of the electricity sectors by 2050 is an elementary condition for avoiding global average temperature increase beyond 2 °C. This article adopts such full transition as Europe's target when designing renewable energy policy. An immediate corollary is that phasing-in unprecedented energy efficiency and renewable generation must be paralleled by phasing-out non-sustainable fossil fuel and nuclear power technologies. The double phasing programme assigns novel meaning to nearby target settings for renewable power as share of total power consumption. It requires organizing in the medium term EU-wide markets for green power, a highly demanding task in the present context of poorly functional markets in brown power. The EU Commission's 2007/2008 proposals of expanding tradable certificates markets were not based on solid analysis of past experiences and future necessities. The keystone of sound policies on renewable electricity development is a detailed scientific differentiation and qualification of renewable electricity sources and technologies, for measuring the huge diversity in the field. We provide but structuring concepts about such qualification, because implementation requires extensive research resources.     

绿色电力营销 可再生能源发展的市场动力

本文从分析中国可再生能源发展的障碍入手,指出现有电力销售机制及电价形成机制是可再生电力发展的瓶颈,也使得目前中国旨在促进可再生能源扩大规模、降低成本的政策无法得到有效的实施。根据迈克尔·波特的竞争战略理论,采用绿色电力营销的标歧立异战略,能帮助可再生能源发电产业在一定细分市场内建立相对于传统电力的竞争优势,同时也可克服现有电力销售机制的局限。一方面可再生电力与普通电力的差价由自愿购买的用户承担,避免每上一个可再生能源项目就需要提高全网电价的做法,是对现有体制的创新,同时也大大降低交易成本;另一方面差价取决于用户的支付意愿,差价越低,用户的支付意愿越高,市场越大;差价越高,支付意愿越低,市场越小,有利于形成竞争局面,促使可再生能源发电厂商降低发电成本。本文建议应当鼓励北京、上海等大城市的电力公司率先启动绿色电力营销计划,并为绿色电力营销创造良好的市场环境。     

Renewable energy policy and landscape management in Andalusia,Spain: The facts

Renewable energy has developed spectacularly in Spain since the European Union started a process of energy policy reform. A review of Spanish State legislation on renewable energies confirms that the success in installing renewable energy is attributable to public aid. Andalusia is one of the autonomous communities, which has simultaneously developed the legal framework and very successfully implemented the introduction of renewable power. When implementing the central government’s policy, the Andalusian regional government prioritised increases in both surface cover by wind and solar plants (thermal and photovoltaic energy) and in the number of companies involved. However, this development of renewable energies took place without any proper integration into regional spatial and landscape planning. This paper explores renewable power implementation in Andalusia through regulatory measures put in place over the last decade to develop renewable energy systems and the way they can be managed alongside planning issues. The location of large-scale renewable plants has had consequences for territory in the socio-political context of renewable energy promotion. The main findings focus on renewable energy plant sprawl throughout rural areas in Andalusia with no clear effect on landscape management and no firm backing from the local population.     

Planning of renewables schemes: Deliberative and fair decision-making on landscape issues instead of reproachful accusations of non-cooperation

The main issues related to successful implementation policies concern the socio-economic institutions that are conditional to planning in the energy policy domain, but also in the domain of spatial planning. Successful investments and the siting of renewable power plants eventually determine the success rate of national efforts in establishing renewable capacity. Central planning usually has several objectives and these often have a detrimental effect on the goal of renewable energy application. Current problems related to implementation decisions concerning wind power schemes are an example to those who will be faced by other renewable power plants, notably biomass.     

What lessons have been learned in reforming the Renewables Obligation? An analysis of internal and external failures in UK renewable energy policy

Despite operating a delivery programme for RES-E since 1990, UK targets and policy goals have not been achieved. In response, the Government reformed the RO. This article re-examines UK renewable energy policy by analysing the internal and external failures of the various mechanisms to determine if Government has learnt from previous experience in reforming the RO. Government did not learn from their own actions during the NFFO/RO transition, evidenced by high-levels of similarity in internal/external failures. The reformed-RO is expected to significantly increase deployment, has provided a ‘renewables package’ by comprehensively addressing both internal/external failures but major internal failures (price/financial risk) still remain, resulting in contiguous failures over two decades and two mechanism changes (NFFO, RO, RO/reformed-RO). Success will again be heavily dependent on a select few technologies and new/untested measures to combat external failures. Mechanism-extension to 2037 is probably the single most important factor underlying potential deployment increases. However, introducing a FIT-like system via the sheer number of ‘bolt-on’ reforms to counter policy failures indicates loss of direction and clarity. Overall, although Government appears to have learnt some of its lessons from the past two-decades, significant doubt remains whether renewable energy policy objectives will be met via the latest mechanism change.     

Governmental policy and prospect in electricity production from renewables in Lithuania

In Lithuania, the generation of electricity is based on the nuclear energy and on the fossil fuels. After the decommissioning of Ignalina nuclear power plant in 2009, the Lithuanian Power Plant and other thermal plants will become the major sources of electricity. Consequently, the Lithuanian power sector must focus on the implementation of renewable energy projects, penetration of new technologies and on consideration of the future opportunities for renewables, and Government policy for promoting this kind of energy. Production of electricity from renewable energy is based on hydro, biomass and wind energy resources in Lithuania. Due to the typical climatic condition in Lithuania the solar photovoltaics and geothermal energy are not used for power sector. Moreover, the further development of hydropower plants is limited by environmental restrictions, therefore priority is given to wind energy development and installation of new biomass power plants. According to the requirements set out in the Directive 2001/77/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 27 September 2001 on the promotion of electricity produced from renewable energy sources in the internal electricity market [Official Journal L283, 33–40, 27 October 2001], 7% of gross consumption of electricity will be generated from renewable energy by 2010 in Lithuania. The aim of this paper is to show the estimation of the maximum renewable power penetration in the Lithuanian electricity sector and possible environmental impact.     

Trends of distributed generation development in Lithuania

The closure of Ignalina Nuclear Power Plant, impact of recent global recession of the economy, as well as changes and problems posed by the global climate change require significant alterations in the Lithuanian energy sector development. This paper describes the current status and specific features of the Lithuanian power system, and in particular discusses the role of the distributed generators. Country's energy policy during last two decades was focused on substantial modernisation of the energy systems, their reorganisation and creation of appropriate institutional structure and necessary legal basis. The most important factors stimulating development of distributed generation in Lithuania are the following: international obligations to increase contribution of power plants using renewable energy sources into electricity production balance; development of small (with capacity less than 50 MW) cogeneration power plants; implementation of energy policy directed to promotion of renewable energy sources and cogeneration. Analysis of the legal and economic environment, as well as principles of regulation of distributed generation and barriers to its development is presented.