Searching for effective and democratic town planning: the international travels of Sir Ernest Simon, 1936–1943

This article examines the international journeys made during 1936–1943 by Sir Ernest Simon, the prominent Manchester reformer and businessman, to investigate urban planning in Moscow, Zurich, Stockholm, and across the United States. The research uses Simon’s own handwritten notes and other archival sources, together with subsequently published material where he drew lessons from these places for Britain. It is a detailed case study of ‘policy tourism’ and ‘cross-national learning’ by an individual important in the town planning movement who was also part of a wider demand for economic and social planning being influentially promoted at the time by cross-party ‘middle opinion’. The visits formed part of his personal search for a form of town planning that was both as effective as that in the Soviet Union but also democratic and consistent with British political values. Switzerland and Sweden were judged as successful democracies, able to plan their most important cities effectively without recourse to totalitarian methods. The United States he approached with suspicions of its tradition of pervasive city corruption. However, he returned heralding the Tennessee Valley Authority and New York City’s express highways and parks as the world’s most outstanding examples of democratic planning.     

Construction of the planning idea: Britain,the USA and Australia 1929–1939

In the 1930s the idea of planning captured the imagination of the world. Politicians, social reformers, academics and professionals from numerous fields took up the bones of the idea and gave substance to it in accordance with their particular traditions, interests and resources. In this article the immediate origins of the post‐depression planning phenomenon are examined. Comment is made on the assumptions underlying the planning faith. British, American and Australian sources are scanned, to identify points of actual or potential contact between the various fields of thought in which the word planning was commonly employed or in which the concept was implicit; including urban planning, regional development planning, Keynesian macro‐economic management and the Technocracy movement. It was at regional level that the best prospects existed for a joining of minds between planners from different disciplines. However, planning was too general an idea to serve as the defining element of a unified field of theory or action.     

Post-war planning and policy tourism: the international study tours of the Town and Country Planning Association 1947–1961

In light of the burgeoning academic interest in policy mobilities and policy tourism, this paper offers a critical insight into international planning study tours. Countering the contemporary focus of much of the research on these topics, this paper draws on archival research to explore the international study tours of the UK's Town and Country Planning Association (TCPA) between 1947 and 1961. In doing this, the paper makes two wider arguments; first, that there remains significant mileage in bringing together the policy mobilities literature with the work on past exchanges and visits by architects, engineers and planners and, second, that greater awareness and appreciation of past examples of comparison and learning might allow contemporary studies to be situated in their longer historical trajectories.     

Extension planning and the historic city: civic design strategies in the 1908–9 Copenhagen international competition

In shedding light on the 1908–9 competition for Greater Copenhagen this article examines the contest as an instrument for the accumulation and transmission of planning know‐how, ideas and innovations in relation to the development of town planning theory and practice in the Nordic Countries. Plans are considered as both technical and cultural graphics marks reflecting alternative and possibly contradictory images of the greater city or city of the future. The discussion focuses on the relationship between urban design's twin polarities: urban transformation and creation on the one hand; concern for conservation and urban continuity on the other. After considering the competition's international dimension, the article explores the civic art strand of design in northern Europe before 1914 and the idea of the historic city by investigating the conservation movement that flourished in Copenhagen when there were rapid changes in the physical fabric. The article, based on archive materials, analyses of awarded and non‐awarded entries alike, illustrates how architects, engineers and surveyors combined their design of the city's extensions with conservation schemes for both peripheries and centre. It is suggested that, at a time when Nordic municipal authorities were pressing for comprehensive town planning, planners strove to provide ways of protecting the existing built environment. This involved not only safeguarding an emerging ‘historic city’ in contrast to the new extensions, but also proposals for maintaining urban continuity in the peripheries.     

Reconstruction and planning in the aftermath of the Anglo-Boer South African War: the experience of the Colony of Natal, 1900–1910

The idea of ‘reconstruction’ is now well established in the historiography of South African planning. Particular attention has been paid to ‘reconstructionist planning’: during and immediately after World War; in the apartheid era; and, in the recent context of post-apartheid development. The centenary celebrations of the Anglo-Boer South African War (1899–1902) are, however, directing attention to the programme for the reconstruction of the previous Boer republics that was initiated by the imperialist proconsul, Lord Milner, and is the subject of ongoing controversy. Natal was not a direct target of Milner's programme but the aftermath of conflict in this British colony was linked to important socio-economic and spatial transformations. The idea of ‘town planning’ was only in an embryonic form at the time but ‘post-war reconstruction’ in Natal included interventions in the shaping of urban and rural space that provided the basis for future programmes of reconstruction and planning, including that of racial ordering under apartheid. For example, the system that developed in Durban to finance the construction and administration of segregated municipal housing for Africans was later exported to the rest of South Africa and became a major feature of the National Party's programme of ‘township development’.     

Modelling the urban future: planning,slums and the seduction of growth in St Louis, 1940–1950

This paper considers the attempts by planners during and after World War II to forecast population change for the purposes of long‐range planning. St Louis is used as a case study to examine the social, economic and political contexts within which decisions about how to map the city’s future were made. At the heart of the problem is the adoption by the city of a growth model to justify a large‐scale slum clearance agenda at the very moment when the city was poised for catastrophic population loss. It is argued that planners allowed themselves to be caught up in the momentary crisis of a wartime population spike, ultimately ignoring their own frequent warnings about underlying trends toward population decline. Within this post‐war crisis of temporary overcrowding, planners made the critical decision to move ahead with slum clearance projects of unprecedented scale. Unfortunately, by the time their projects were complete, the city for which they had been undertaken no longer existed.     

Crossroads: Imperial priorities and regional perspectives in the planning of Haifa, 1918–1939

At the end of World War 1, after the defeat of the Turks by the armies of General Allenby, Palestine (or Eretz Israel, as it was called by its Jewish inhabitants) came under British rule. The Military Government of 1917 was followed in 1920 by a Civil Administration (with Sir Herbert Samuel as the first High Commissioner), as a transitional stage prior to accepting a Mandate from the League of Nations to administer the territory on behalf of the international community. When Haifa was occupied, in 1918, it was a town of some 20 000 people — Moslems, Christians and Jews — the great majority of whom lived on that narrow coastal strip where the looming mass of Mount Carmel came down to meet the waters of Haifa Bay (or the Bay of Acre, as it was then known). For most of its history, Haifa had been secondary in importance to its neighbour at the northern end of the Bay, the historic city of Acre; and it was later to be overshadowed by the upstart, vibrant, new city of Tel‐Aviv, on the sand dunes 100 kilometres to the south. However, in the two decades between the wars, Haifa received a degree of attention from both British and Zionist policy makers and planners which seemed, at first sight, to be altogether out of proportion to its size and apparent importance. This rather unexpected concentration of thought and effort upon Haifa derived from contemporary perceptions of Haifa's role in the region. Its importance, both economic and strategic, was assessed in much more significant terms, both by the Imperial Government and the Zionist Organization, in the light of the prevailing geo‐political realities of the 1920s and 1930s. In order to adapt Haifa and its region to the role envisaged for it, several major planning campaigns were carried out in these critical years, usually —but not exclusively — on the initiative of the Zionist Organization and bodies affiliated or close to it. The history of these ventures has been recorded elsewhere, in papers by the present author and Silvina Sosnovsky, on the down‐town area, the planning of Hadar and the settlements on Mount Carmel, and the redemption of the Haifa Bay lands. Our present concern is to discuss those fundamental policy decisions of the British Government, which were ultimately to shape Haifa's plans, and influence its future growth and development. The key factors, in this process, were the focussing of the railway system on Haifa and the construction of its major workshops there; the decision to build Palestine's principal deep‐water port in Haifa, and to locate it next to the down‐town area; the decision to construct a pipeline from the oilfields of Iraq, and make Haifa one of its outlets, and subsequently to build a major oil‐refinery in Haifa Bay; to locate an aerodrome on the flat terrain of the Bay lands; and to encourage the industrial development of the area, both to ensure the viability of the port, and as a major factor in regional trade. In this paper we examine some of these factors, to the extent that they were eventually to impinge upon land use and planning issues.     

War,planning and social change: The example of the garden city campaign, 1914–1918

The relationship between war, planning and social change is an intriguing one. In Britain, both the First and Second World Wars saw the evolution of an enhanced role for the State and the framing of new social welfare legislation. If this observation is in itself uncontentious, the extent to which the two processes, war and social change, are causally related, is, however, more problematic. Some historians have tended towards the view that war has a catalytic effect on society, overturning old ways and bringing in the new; while others have urged a more cautious approach, looking towards prewar practices and trends for the origins of radical change.

For the planning historian this is an interesting and important debate. Both world wars are significant chapters in the development of the modern planning system, and it is instructive to pursue the extent to which the progress that occurred in these periods simply evolved from what existed already, or whether it was primarily a product of unique wartime conditions. Various aspects of this debate have already been investigated, not least of all through studies of the ‘Homes for Heroes’ campaign that originated in the First World War and through the official histories of planning in the 1940s.

The intention of this paper is to contribute fresh evidence in the form of an analysis of the 1914–1918 lobby of the Garden Cities and Town Planning Association for town planning and, in particular, for the adoption of a national policy for garden cities. The paper takes the form of a summary of where the campaign stood before war was declared, prior to a review of what was achieved during the war years. It is concluded that wartime conditions undoubtedly served to draw governments towards an increasingly interventionist stance, coupled with a new sense of social urgency, but that the seeds of changes had already been firmly planted before 1914.     

Twenty‐five years (1967–1992) of urban transport planning in France

In retracing the history of the last twenty‐five years of urban transport planning in France, we begin by providing an explanation of the quarter‐century 1967–1992 in four distinct phases. This brings out for each one of the four periods the specific procedures, the tendencies of local policies on public transport, and the evolution of mobility behaviour as well as central planning problematics. It also highlights, in the language of economics, supply (transportation services) and demand (needs in terms of movement), the modalities of adaptation of supply to demand, and their dysfunction.     

Coal,community, town planning and the management of labour: South Wales,c.1900–1920

The current drive to promote high densities in the planning and construction of new communities should not be allowed to obscure the success of low-density new towns. Both Reston in Northern Virginia, and Milton Keynes, in the county of Buckinghamshire, England, planned during the 1960s, have become popular with their residents: they now live in new towns recognized for their overall low densities and suburban ethos. Yet the original planners of these towns had markedly ‘urban’ intentions in mind. They aimed for compact living clusters within a tamed countryside of parks and open spaces. Local employment parks would also obviate the need for large-scale commuting. These intentions, however, were not fully implemented. This was most clearly evident in relation to housing. The original planners had preferred a vision predominantly characterized by late-modern urban housing styles. However, popular tastes within the housing market led the subsequent managers of Reston and Milton Keynes to more fully embrace traditional-vernacular models of suburban domestic architecture. These styles complemented the wider countrified setting of the new towns. The following discussion demonstrates the gentle paradox that Reston and Milton Keynes, planned as alternatives to suburban sprawl, became rationalized and attractive suburban entities. The comparative approach within the article also proves the undoubted popularity of suburban living in both England and the USA.     

Politics,planning and the protection of nature: Political abuse of early ecological ideas in Germany, 1933–45

This paper has three objectives. First, it illustrates how the theme of rationality, so important for a country's artistic culture and for studies in the positive sciences, is present both in modern Italy and the field of town planning. Second, it examines the ‘limits’ of town planning: a sort of set of ‘commandments’ which establishment culture has formulated in order to test and institutionalize planning projects. Third, it attempts to demonstrate how one of the peculiar and conditioning features of town planning in Italy is the importance attributed to history (the history of the city, the history of planning schemes and procedures) in justifying decisions which result in urban transformation.     

The ‘Haussmannization’ of London?: the planning and construction of Kings way-Aldwych, 1889–1935

Modernist planning was at its zenith in Britain during the 1960s, after post-war austerity had passed and before disillusion and reaction set in towards the end of the decade and in the 1970s. It is a time often now associated with 'clean sweep' planning, where the only constraints on redevelopment were economic and conservation policy was restricted to the preservation of a limited number of major buildings and monuments. This article considers the re-planning of Newcastle city centre in the period when planning in the city was led by T. Dan Smith and Wilfred Burns, from Smith assuming political control in 1959 to Burns leaving in 1968. It demonstrates that, though modernist rationalism was the driving force in the city's re-planning, it co-existed with a conscious policy of conservation, born out of a picturesque design tradition.     

‘Order out of chaos’: the London Society and the planning of London 1912–1920

The history of civic consciousness in the late nineteenth century has focused on philanthropic housing reform and the provision of civic amenities such as public parks and libraries. Histories of the growth of the town planning movement in the same period likewise have been dominated by housing, with an emphasis on the garden suburb and the activities of the Garden City Association (founded 1899). At the same time, and partly due to the popularity of research on Ruskin, Morris and their followers, the history of popular movements emerging at the end of the last century has concentrated on conservation groups like the Society for the Protection of Ancient Buildings (founded 1877) and the National Trust (founded 1895). An analysis is presented here of an emerging voluntary civic and planning movement and its contribution to urban and planning history. It examines the growth of modern civic consciousness from 1890 to 1920, when citizens began to exercise their right to participate in the planning and design of the urban environment. The analysis focuses on the relationship between the town planning movement, local government and a voluntary planning and amenity group, the London Society, founded in 1912, to argue that civic consciousness shifted in the period from a nineteenth century philanthropic approach to urban reform, which centred on housing and amenity, to a more professional and democratic attempt to attend to the planning of the whole urban environment. The research identifies a moment of progressive optimism regarding urban civilization at the beginning of this century, and thus dispels the myth that the period was characterized by anti-urbanism.     

Planning Legislation: 1966–1967

This review continues the coverage of previous legislative reviews in 1964 and 1966. Major planning legislation, both state and federal, for the past two years is described render general categories. Significant new legislative developments are identified, and specific acts are cited. Among the highlights included are Section 204 of the Demonstration Cities and Metropolitan Development Act of 1966, a wide variety of new state planning and urban development acts, and recent activities in the field of metropolitan councils of government.     

Post-war reconstruction and conservation of the historic Jewish Quarter in Jerusalem, 1967–1975

The aim of this paper is to examine post-war planning and reconstruction of the historic Jewish Quarter of the Old City of Jerusalem from 1967 to 1975. It focuses on the role of conservation of cultural heritage in determining the quarter's character, on the interaction between ‘top-down’ national and municipal planning and grassroots initiatives, on deviations from planning and declared policies, and on historical and geographical factors affecting restoration. Public opinion, individual initiatives, and response to immediate needs were more decisive in determining the character of the reconstruction than much of the planning. Intentional and unanticipated spatial changes within the Jewish Quarter and in its relationships with surrounding areas had a particularly profound effect on its character.     

Revisiting the role of architects in planning large-scale housing in the USSR: the birth of socialist residential districts in Tallinn,Estonia, 1957–1979

In Central and Eastern Europe and the Former Soviet Union, housing estates are often associated with inhumane architecture and unwelcoming public space, an outcome that can be attributed to strict design requirements in a rigid centralized system. Due to the uniformity of residential housing produced during socialist times, both the design process and its master – the architect – are believed to have played only minor roles in shaping townscapes. This study, situated in the large housing estates of Tallinn, Estonia, challenges these assumptions using analyses of archival material (relating to planning procedures during state socialism) and articles in specialized magazines. The study also explains – through first-hand interviews with senior architects who were key players in building socialist cities – the relations between Soviet regulations and vital elements of the city-building process, including creativity, power, and artistry. Analysis of primary source materials highlights an oversimplification of socialist modernism, which suggests more nuanced explanations for town planning outcomes. Findings suggest that regulations issued in Moscow for Union of Soviet Socialist Republic-wide planning played a less important role than previously assumed in town planning outcomes in Estonia. International modernist city planning ideals, combined with local expertise, strongly influenced town planning practice in the Soviet ‘West’.     

Towards an analytical framework based on the principles of Civic Design. The case of post-earthquake Talca,Chile 2010–2016

The principles of civic design link the physical conditions of built-up space to its social fabric. Reconstruction of cities following earthquake disasters is seen as an opportunity to revisit the components of civic design and refer it to the neighbourhood scale. This paper provides a review of the principles of civic design, later introducing the Civic Life Analytical Framework (CLAF), used to highlight the socio-spatial particularities of heavily affected intermediate cities, setting the basis for an analytical framework in the context of urban reconstruction. The case study of Talca in its post-earthquake reconstruction stage (2010–2016) delivers empirical grounds, including elements of the social and built-up environmental conditions. The use of CLAF in the northern quarter of Talca involves the observation of morphological aspects, architecture aesthetics, physical structure and dimensions of the collective (public) space, later triangulated with a structured qualitative approach, using data from twenty-two interviews. The results provide a visualization of the main perceptions of residents regarding their sense of agency, community and belonging – these being constitutive dimensions of civic life. As main findings, civic life in Talca is affected by the polarization of dwelling spaces, impacting the conditions for individuals and families to interact with their surroundings, fostering socially disjointed (public) spaces. Conclusions on the importance of exploring civic design through epistemological and methodological interests are given. This approach could also be useful for applying to other cities under similar stress situations.     

‘Unhealthy areas’: Town planning,eugenics and the slums, 1890–1945

The value of planning in remedying slum problems in Britain was widely recognized by the outbreak of the Second World War. Indeed, the identification of planning with social progress underpinned the post‐war consensus. This broad agreement, however, was achieved in the face of apparently distinct and opposing views. From 1890 onwards, the sufficiency of environmental reform in ‘Unhealthy Areas’ was challenged by radical socialists on the one hand, and by the ‘eugenists’ of the social hygiene movement on the other. No one view, however, succeeded in eliminating the others before 1945.

The issue at stake was whether differences in housing and health were the direct product of economic and environmental inequalities, or whether these differences resulted from a process of selective social mobility sorting out the ‘fit’ from the ‘unfit’. Much of the debate centred on overcrowding and its causes. Radical formulations of the slum problem, however, whether from the left or the right, offered no politically plausible solutions to government in Britain — politicians and civil servants sought other ways of typifying and delineating slums, manipulating their presentation of the problem until it appeared to be within their ability to solve.

The nature of the debate about slums, eugenics and planning is discussed in three sections relating to the 1890s, 1920s and 1930s. Finally, the problematic route by which all parties came to accept an environmental approach is explored.     

South African ‘know-how’ and Israeli ‘facts of life’: the planning of Afridar,Ashkelon, 1949–1956

In 1949, in the newly founded state of Israel, South African architects Norman Hanson and Roy Kantorowich planned the city of Ashkelon and, within it, the exclusive neighbourhood unit Afridar. Managed by the South African Jewish Appeal, which initiated and funded the project, Afridar presented a radical exception to Israel’s centralized planning approach during that period. An early example of a semi-private settlement initiative for an ethnic and class-based enclave reserved for ‘Anglo-Saxon’ Jewish immigrants, it functioned as a ‘model town’ for the immigrant population from the Middle East and North Africa, which was housed by the government in the rest of the city of Ashkelon. Afridar’s enclave reproduced planning practices from South Africa, which had been coloured by race since the 1920s. Despite its exclusive image, it was modelled after progressive experiments in the design of Native Townships. Their main objective of such experiments was to improve the standards of housing of racially discriminated populations yet, in practice, they served as a tool to implement apartheid policies. This paper interrogates this ambivalence of social aspirations and complicity with state segregation practices through examining the translation of apartheid’s planning practices to the Israeli context, and the negotiations and conflicts this translation entailed.