Effect of carrageenan level and packaging during ripening on processing and quality characteristics of low-fat fermented sausages produced with olive oil

Eight low-fat fermented sausages were produced with partial replacement of pork backfat with olive oil. The total fat content of the sausages was 10% of which 8% was animal fat and 2% was olive oil. The sausages were produced with two types of carrageenan (ι- and κ-) in four levels (0%, 1%, 2% and 3%). ι-Carrageenan had a better effect (p<0.05) than κ-carrageenan on such characteristics as pH, weight loss and lipid oxidation of the sausages, as well as, on sensory attributes. Low-fat fermented sausages with κ-carrageenan had the same (p>0.05) firmness as high-fat commercial sausages (control). The carrageenan level of 3% negatively affected the firmness of the sausages. In a 2nd experiment, a high-fat control (30% total fat) and three low-fat fermented sausages (10% total fat) with olive oil were produced with three levels of ι-carrageenan (0%, 1% and 2%). Low-fat sausages were vacuum packed for the last two weeks of ripening. ι-Carrageenan added at levels up to 2% had a positive effect (p<0.05) on the physicochemical and microbiological characteristics of the low-fat fermented sausages. The application of vacuum packaging over last two weeks of ripening improved the physicochemical and microbiological characteristics of the sausages and resulted in sensory attributes equal to or better than the high-fat controls.     

Effect of the ripening time under vacuum and packaging film permeability on processing and quality characteristics of low-fat fermented sausages

The effect of vacuum ripening of low-fat fermented sausages packaged in films with different permeabilities on their microbiological, physicochemical and sensorial characteristics was studied. High-fat control sausages were produced with 30% initial fat and low-fat sausages with 10% initial fat. The low-fat sausages were separated into: (a) non-packaged (control) and (b) packaged under vacuum on 7th, 12th and 17th day of processing, remaining under vacuum during the ripening period for 21, 16 and 11 days, respectively, in three different oxygen (100, 38 and ? 5 cm³/m²/24 h/1 atm) and water vapour (4.5, <2.5 and 1 g/m² 24 h) permeability plastic bags. Vacuum packaging reduced (p < 0.05) the weight loss, the hardness and extent of lipid oxidation in the sausages, increased (p < 0.05) their lightness, but had no effect (p > 0.05) on the redness, compared to the control sausages. Packaging low-fat fermented sausages under vacuum for the last 11 days of ripening in packaging film with high permeability increased (p < 0.05) the lactic acid bacteria count. The same product packaged in film with medium permeability had a higher (p < 0.05) Micrococcaceae count and the same (p > 0.05) hardness and overall acceptability as the high-fat control sausages. A ripening time of 11 days and the medium packaging film permeability were the most appropriate conditions for the vacuum packaging of low-fat fermented sausages.     

The relationship between the composition and texture of conventional and low-fat frankfurters

The chemical composition, instrumental texture and sensory properties of eighteen conventional and three low-fat commercially produced frankfurters were analysed. The most important factors in defining the texture of the product were hardness and juiciness, these being related respectively to the percentage of protein and the fat/protein ratio in the frankfurter. Subsequently, using a basic formulation of soya protein and starch, different levels of fat (10 and 15%) and hydrocolloids [carrageenan, carboxymethylcellulose (CMC) and apple pectin] were tested. According to results from these trials, three low-fat formulations were chosen. The three low-fat sausages were a sausage with 15% fat and carrageenan (0.5%), a sausage with 10% fat and a combination of carrageenan (0.5%) and pectin (0.4%) and a sausage with 10% fat and a combination of carrageenan (0.5%) and CMC (0.1%). The sensory and instrumental texture attributes of the three low-fat and the standard sausages were investigated. Results indicated that low-fat (10%) frankfurters with a texture profile similar to standard frankfurters could be manufactured through the addition of mixtures of proteins and hydrocolloids. The combination of carrageenan with CMC or apple pectin is more efficient than the use of carrageenan alone as both combinations allow a higher reduction of fat, at the same time achieving a final texture well liked by consumers.     

The effects of cereal additives in low-fat sausages and meatballs. Part 1: Untreated and enzyme-treated rye bran

Rye bran was added to frankfurter-type sausages and meatballs with the aim of producing low-fat products with increased dietary fibre content. The addition of untreated rye bran to sausages was detrimental, causing a substantial increase in frying loss (20% compared to 13.2%). The addition of rye bran treated with hydrolytic enzymes reduced the frying loss to 15.2–16.4%. The firmness was also improved by the treatments (12.8–14.2 N compared to 8.8 N). Enzymatic treatment of rye bran did not however improve the water-holding capacity or the texture of sausages compared to the rye bran that had only been soaked in water. The reason could be that enzymes degraded the solubilized fraction of the dietary fibre, leaving small fragments that cannot contribute to the water-holding capacity and the texture of the sausages. The benefits of treating rye bran in water were not seen in meatballs, probably due to the more particulate structure of meatballs, which is not as sensitive to additives.     

The technology of low-fat cheese manufacture

Growth in the low-fat cheese market has been slower than would be anticipated on the basis of increased consumer awareness of dietary fat intake. Consumer dissatisfaction with the quality of first-generation low-fat products has highlighted the need for improved technology. Significant advances in understanding the biochemical and physicochemical characteristics of low-fat variants in the past decade have led to novel technological developments. Approaches that have the potential to improve the flavour, texture and functionality of reduced- and low-fat cheese are reviewed here. Topics include the control of processing variables, the selection of appropriate starter and adjunct bacteria, and the use of fat mimetics to improve texture. Factors influencing flavour and texture development in low-fat variants are also considered.     

Low-fat meat sausages with fish oil: Optimization of milk proteins and carrageenan contents using response surface methodology

Response surface methodology was used to analyze the effect of milk proteins and 2:1 κ:ι-carrageenans on cooking loss (CL), weight lost by centrifugation (WLC) and texture attributes of low-fat meat sausages with pre-emulsified fish oil. A central-composite design was used to develop models for the objective responses. Changes in carrageenans affected more the responses than milk proteins levels. Convenience functions were calculated for CL, WLC, hardness, and springiness of the product. Responses were optimized simultaneously minimizing CL and WLC; ranges for hardness and springiness corresponded to commercial products (20 g of pork fat/100 g). The optimum corresponded to 0.593 g of carrageenans/100 g and 0.320 g of milk proteins and its total lipid content was 6.3 g/100 g. This formulation was prepared and evaluated showing a good agreement between predicted and experimental responses. These additives could produce low-fat meat sausages with pre-emulsified fish oil with good nutritional quality and similar characteristics than traditional ones.     

Storage stability of low-fat beef frankfurters formulated with carrageenan or carrageenan with pectin

Storage stability of low-fat frankfurters (<3.0 fat content) formulated with carrageenan (0.3, 0.5, and 0.7%) or carrageenan with a pectin gel (PG) (20%) was examined during 49-day refrigerated storage. Low fat frankfurters had higher bacterial growth than high-fat control (HFC) over the refrigerated storage due to higher water activity resulting from extra water addition. While there was no change in the pH of low-fat frankfurters initially due to carrageenan or PG incorporation, the most noticeable pH decline was observed in PG-added frankfurters followed by only carrageenan added ones over the storage period. HFC had the highest (P<0.05) TBA value and the lowest redness index (a(?)/b(?)) all the time as compared with carrageenan or carrageenan and PG added low-fat frankfurters. Low-fat frankfurters formulated with either carrageenan or carrageenan with PG had acceptable sensory scores.     

The effects of carrageenan and pectin on some quality characteristics of low-fat beef frankfurters

Effects of carrageenan (0.3, 0.5, or 0.7%) and carrageenan (0.3, 0.5, or 0.7%) with a pectin gel (20%) on some quality characteristics of low-fat beef frankfurters were evaluated in comparison to a high-fat control (HFC) and a low-fat control (LFC). While low-fat frankfurters had <3.0% fat, 73-76% moisture, 13-14% protein, HFC had 17% fat, 59% moisture, and 14% protein. A reduction of 50-59% in cholesterol was determined in low fat beef frankfurters as compared to HFC (P<0.05). Better process yield and emulsion stability, and less purge were observed with increasing carrageenan concentration. Treatment groups showed higher water holding capacity (WHC) than LFC, and lower WHC than HFC (P<0.05). With increasing carrageenan concentration, WHC increased and penetrometer value decreased in low-fat frankfurters.     

Thermal,microscopic, and quality properties of low-fat frankfurters and emulsions produced by addition of different hydrocolloids

This study involves investigation of the effects of addition of different hydrocolloids on the thermal, microscopic, and quality properties of low-fat meat emulsions and frankfurters. The emulsion stability of the samples containing 0.5% κ-carrageenan, λ-carrageenan or chitosan, and the 1% chitosan containing sample were lower than that of the control group. Thermal analyses showed three denaturation peaks for minced meat at 57.42 °C, 64.21 °C and 78.58 °C. While the denaturation temperature of myosin for the sample produced with 0.5% of κ-carrageenan was significantly lower, samples containing 1% κ-carrageenan and 0.5% λ-carrageenan were not significantly different than that of the control group. The thermal denaturation temperature of myosin for samples containing 1% λ-carrageenan, and for 0.5% and 1% guar gum, xanthan gum and chitosan was significantly higher than that of the control. The denaturation temperature of sarcoplasmic proteins and actin for samples with 1% κ- and λ-carrageenan and 0.5% chitosan, was higher than for the control, while for other samples it was not significantly different. The scanning electron microscopy images of the control group and samples produced with 0.5% and 1% λ-carrageenan, 0.5% and 1% guar gum, and 1% κ-carrageenan showed gel-like structures, whereas other samples did not. Sensory evaluations showed that addition of hydrocolloids and reduced fat content lowered acceptance of frankfurters. Results showed that both κ- and λ-carrageenan, especially at 0.5% were the most suitable hydrocolloids for production of low-fat frankfurters and xanthan gum was the least suitable since it did not form proper structure.     

Textural properties and microstructure of low-fat and sodium-reduced meat batters formulated with gellan gum and dicationic salts

Instrumental texture characteristics of low-fat, reduced-sodium meat batters formulated with other salts (KCl and MgCl₂ or CaCl₂) with gellan gum were evaluated. Fat and sodium reduction through incorporation of gellan gum and either of the dicationic salts produced less rigid, more ductile structures. Inclusion of magnesium chloride resulted in better performance, whereas addition of calcium chloride resulted in less desirable properties. The dicationic salts level used probably inhibited the gellan gum thermoreversible properties, affecting its water holding properties. Microstructural differences between the dicationic salt treatments were apparently due to the effect of dicationic salt concentration on myofibrillar protein extraction and solubilization, and gellan gum gelation properties. Use of magnesium chloride in tandem with gellan gum in the studied low-fat, reduced-sodium meat batters effectively compensated for the structural differences caused by fat and sodium reduction.     

Flavour profiles of low-fat comminuted sausages as affected by the addition of various sugars in combined with 0.1 m lysine

The study was performed to evaluate the flavour profiles of low-fat comminuted sausage (LFS) as affected by the addition of various concentrations of glucose, fructose and sucrose combined with 0.1  m lysine. Among thirty-five volatile compounds, the concentrations of furfural, 2-furan methanol, 2-methoxy phenol, 2-methoxy-4-methyl phenol, myristicine and pentadecanal occupied approximately 60% of the total concentration of volatile compounds identified in full- and low-fat smoked sausages. Phenols and hetero-compounds derived mainly from the smoking process were the predominant chemical groups. Nine volatile compounds were affected by fat content and the reduction of fat predominantly increased the headspace concentration of myristicin and pentadecanal. The headspace concentration of total volatile compounds detected in LFS control was significantly higher than those of LFS treatments with the various sugars and lysine. The headspace concentration of most volatile compounds decreased with the addition of various sugars. The results indicate that the addition of glucose, fructose and sucrose at the concentrations higher than 0.05  m in combination with 0.1  m lysine delays the release of some flavour compounds in LFS.     

Stress relaxation characteristics of low-fat chicken sausages made in Argentina

Low-fat sausages were prepared with fresh chicken breast meat and formulated with different levels of added fat, whey protein concentrate, and hydrocolloids (xanthan and guar gums) to study the effect of composition on the stress relaxation behavior of the products. Stress relaxation experiments were conducted on precooked sausages at 25°C. Generalized Maxwell and empirical Peleg models were used to predict the stress relaxation behavior of the material. A model with seven maxwellian elements in parallel with a pure elastic element showed a very good agreement with experimental data. Results show that the proposed model satisfactorily fits the experimental data better than Peleg's model or Maxwell models with less elements. The relaxation time distribution functions were obtained. The characteristic relaxation time was shorter (2500s) for the formulations with no added fat which produced a less elastic product while the sausages with added fat showed longer characteristic relaxation time (5000s). The stress relaxation experiment differentiated the viscoelastic nature of different formulations due to reduction of fat content.     

Effects of oat fibre and carrageenan on the texture of frankfurters formulated with low and high fat

 The effects of fat level (5, 12 and 30%), carrageenan and oat fibre on the texture of frankfurters were evaluated using mechanical properties and sensory (taste panel) methods. Textural profile analysis (TPA) indicated that fat reduction decreased hardness, adhesiveness, gumminess and chewiness. In contrast, springiness increased when the fat content was reduced from 30% to 5%. No relationships between fat content and either Warner-Bratzler or Kramer shear parameters were found. Carrageenan and oat fibre differed in their effects on TPA values but the latter was more effective at improving texture. Taste panellists did not detect any differences in hardness, springiness or gumminess when fat was reduced from 30% to 5%, although increases in cohesiveness, chewiness, moisture release and lumpiness were observed. Overall acceptability of the texture decreased as the fat level was reduced. Carrageenan and oat fibre improved the acceptability of the 12% fat frankfurters, but neither ingredient offset the detrimental effects on acceptability of the texture when fat was reduced to 5%. The results demonstrate that carrageenan and oat fibre can partially offset some of the textural changes (juiciness, cohesiveness, lumpiness) which occur in low-fat frankfurters when added water replaces fat and the protein level remains constant. Received: 10 May 1999 / Revised version: 9 August 1999     

Effects of composite surface coating and pre-drying on the properties of kabanosy dry sausage

Coating of dry sausages with renewable materials could be an alternative to vacuum packaging. In this study kabanosy dry sausage was coated with a composite emulsion and stored for 7 or 15 days at 4–6 °C. Effects of different emulsion formulas (0.5 or 1% w/w of kappa-carrageenan and 5 or 10% w/w of glycerol) and pre-drying of coated sausages (at 50 °C for 1.5 h) were investigated. Carrageenan concentration had a significant effect (P ≤ 0.05) on the amount of emulsion adsorbed on the sausage surface but little influence on the barrier properties of the coatings. At both glycerol concentration levels, coatings had no visible cracks and were easily removed from the sausage surface after 7 and 15 days of storage. The colour values of coatings (L*, a*, and b*) changed along with the decreasing water activity during storage. Pre-drying of coated sausages reduced peeled product weight loss after storage. The financial analysis showed that among coatings tested the best proved to be the emulsion containing (w/w): 5% glycerol, 5% gelatin, 0.5% carrageenan, 20% lard, 20% beeswax, and 50% water.     

Effect of sodium citrate, carboxymethyl cellulose and carrageenan levels on quality characteristics of low-salt and low-fat bologna type sausages

Quality characteristics of low-salt bologna-type sausage manufactured with sodium citrate (NAC), carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) and carrageenan (CAR) were examined. Three levels of salt, NAC, CMC and CAR, and two levels of fat were used. Batter and sausage pH values were measured and the frying loss of sausages was analysed by frying slices in an electric grill. Firmness, juiciness, saltiness and flavour intensity of the sausages were sensorically evaluated. Altogether 20 separate sausage batches were prepared. In low-salt sausages containing less than 1.4% NaCl, the use of NAC, CAR and CMC decreased frying loss and increased saltiness. NAC and CAR also increased flavour intensity, but CMC did not. Furthermore, NAC, CAR and CMC increased the firmness of the low-salt sausage, while only NAC increased juiciness when the NaCl content was below 1.4%. NAC increases, however, the sodium content of the product. Therefore, it can be concluded that in low-salt sausages no additive alone is suitable. A mixture of NAC and CAR appears to be the best combination.     

Technological and sensory characteristics of reduced/low-fat,low-salt frankfurters as affected by the addition of konjac and seaweed

This paper reports the effect of an edible seaweed, Sea Spaghetti (Himanthalia elongata), on the physicochemical (emulsion stability, cooking loss, colour, texture, residual nitrite and microstructure) and sensory characteristics of reduced- and low-fat, low-salt (NaCl) frankfurters prepared with konjac gel as a fat substitute. The effects on emulsion stability of substituting konjac gel for pork backfat were conditioned by the proportion of the substitution. Incorporation of a combination of Sea Spaghetti/konjac gel (accompanied by reduction in salt) increased (P < 0.05) cooking loss and reduced (P < 0.05) emulsion stability in the gel/emulsion systems. Incorporation of Sea Spaghetti/konjac gel produced a decrease (P < 0.05) of lightness (L∗) and redness (a∗) values and an increase (P < 0.05) of yellowness (b∗) as compared to the other samples. The effect of adding seaweed on the texture parameters of low-salt frankfurters varied depending on the proportion of konjac gel used in the formulation. Morphological differences in frankfurter microstructure were observed as fat content was reduced and konjac gel increased. Incorporation of a combination of Sea Spaghetti/konjac gel caused the formation of a more heterogeneous structure, in which the seaweed was integrated in the meat protein matrix.     

Effects of carrageenan and jackfruit puree on the texture of goat's milk Dadih using response surface methodology

Varying levels of carrageenan (0.1–0.7% w/v) and jackfruit puree (10–20% w/v) were incorporated into goat's milk Dadih (a traditional Malaysian dairy dessert), and texture attributes were obtained in the texture profile output. The desired texture was achieved by determining the optimum concentrations of carrageenan and jackfruit puree used, using response surface methodology. Hardness was significantly affected by both carrageenan and jackfruit puree concentration, while gumminess and elasticity were mainly affected by carrageenan. Graphical optimisation showed that Dadih with textural properties comparable with market could be obtained by incorporating 0.2% of carrageenan and 14.9% of jackfruit puree into the goat's milk Dadih.     

Physicochemical and sensory properties of healthier frankfurters as affected by walnut and fat content

This study evaluates the physicochemical and sensory properties of healthier frankfurters with 25% added walnut (WF) versus low-fat frankfurters (6% pork fat) (LF) and traditional frankfurters (18% pork fat) (NF). Results reveal that cooking losses were unaffected (p ? 0.05) by the formulation of frankfurters. The addition of walnut led to higher (p < 0.05) redness and yellowness values, while colour parameters did not differ significantly between LF and NF sausages. Frankfurters with added walnut (WF) presented higher (p < 0.05) hardness and chewiness values than LF and NF frankfurters. Differences in composition were also accompanied by changes in the microstructure of the gel/emulsions. Frankfurters with added walnut presented a flavour significantly different from meat and scored lower (p < 0.05) on texture preferences. However, all frankfurters scored the same for overall acceptability.     

Physicochemical properties of low-fat and full-fat Cheddar cheeses

Low-fat (6% fat) and full-fat (32% fat) Cheddar cheese was manufactured and aged up to 6–9 months at 5°C. The objective was to study the impact of fat on the physicochemical properties of Cheddar cheese. Total soluble nitrogen (TSN) and protein nitrogen (TPSN) in aqueous extracts were determined by the Kjeldahl method. The peptide content of each cheese was determined with reverse phase chromatography (RPC). Low-fat Cheddar (LFC) had a markedly higher peptide content than full-fat Cheddar (FFC). The overall peptide quantity increased with age with a marked increase in hydrophobic peptide content. Rheological properties were determined using an Instron Universal Testing Machine. LFC had significantly higher stress values, indicating hard and rubbery texture, than FFC. Furthermore, LFC had lower strain values, indicating crumbliness.     

Physicochemical characteristics, textural properties and volatile compounds in comminuted sausages as affected by various fat levels and fat replacers

Physicochemical and textural properties, and volatile compounds of comminuted sausages with various added fat levels and fat replacers were evaluated. Sausages without added fat had higher expressible moisture and texture values, but their lightness and yellowness values were lower, as compared with sausages with 5%, 10%, or 15% fat. Increased fat levels with constant amounts of lean meat and added water increased the lightness and yellowness values, but tended the redness values tended to be similar. Low‐fat sausages (LFSs, <3%) containing non‐meat proteins, except egg white protein, had reduced texture values similar to those of regular‐fat counterparts (RFC). The addition of non‐meat proteins, except egg white protein, as components of fat replacers in LFS improved the textural characteristics, making them similar to those of RFC. LFSs containing sodium caseinate had reduced concentrations of pentadecanal and octadecanal, resulting in similar volatile compositions to those of RFC. Thus, sodium caseinate was the best non‐meat protein for the improvement of both texture and flavour of LFSs.