Bemessung von Holzdecken aus Hohlkastenelementen im Brandfall

Fire behaviour of timber slabs made of hollow core elements This paper presents a simplified design method for the calculation of the fire resistance of timber slabs made of hollow core elements. The simplified design method is based on the reduced cross‐section method according to Eurocode 5 and takes into account two different charring phases, before and after the lower fire‐exposed layer is completely charred. For simplicity linear relationships between charring depth and time are assumed for each phase. The first part of the paper describes the simplified calculation model, in the second part results of fire tests are compared to the calculation model.     

Charring model for timber frame floor assemblies with void cavities

Design models of timber structures in fire usually take into account the loss in cross section due to charring of wood and the temperature-dependent reduction of strength and stiffness of the uncharred residual cross section. For timber frame wall and floor assemblies with void cavities, only a little information is available. In the first part of the paper, the results of an extensive FE-thermal analysis on initially protected timber beams exposed to fire on three sides, after the fire protection has fallen off (post-protection phase), are presented. The FE-thermal analysis verified by fire tests on protected timber specimens exposed to one-dimensional charring permitted the analysis of the main parameters, which influence charring during the post-protection phase. Based on the FE-results, a charring model for timber frame floor assemblies with void cavities has been developed and is presented in the second part of the paper. The charring model takes into account the influence of high temperature during the post-protection phase as well as the heat flux superposition on the charring rate of the timber beams exposed to fire on three sides.     

木梁三面受火后力学性能的试验研究

木梁三面受火后截面分为三个区:外侧为炭化层,承载力完全丧失;中间为高温分解层,承载力明显劣化;内部为正常层,承载力无影响。通过4组15根木梁三面受火后力学性能的对比试验研究,了解不同受火时间后木梁剩余承载力、破坏形态和炭化速度的变化。研究结果表明,三面受火后木梁初始刚度明显降低,剩余承载力显著减小。三面受火后木梁承载力下降原因主要包括:受火后木梁表面炭化使有效面积减小,中和轴上升;受火后靠近炭化层的高温分解层木材强度明显劣化。由于角部遭受两个方向的热传递,使木梁下角部炭化加速后变为弧形。随着受火时间增加,木梁炭化速度有所降低;且竖向炭化速度略大于水平炭化速度。     

木柱四面受火后力学性能的试验研究

木柱受火后截面演化为三个区域:外侧为漆黑的炭化层,承载力完全丧失;中间为深灰的高温分解层,承载力明显劣化;内部为颜色不变的正常层,承载力无变化。通过5组24根木柱四面受火后力学性能的对比试验研究,了解不同受火时间后木柱剩余承载力、延性、破坏形态和炭化速度的变化过程。研究结果表明,受火后木柱剩余承载力显著降低,受火木柱的初始刚度均明显低于对比试件,部分截面较小的受火木柱发生偏压破坏。四面受火后木柱承载力下降原因主要包括:受火使木柱表面炭化,木柱有效面积减小;受火后靠近炭化层的高温分解层木材强度明显劣化;随着受火时间增加,木柱截面长细比增加导致其稳定系数降低;部分木柱由于局部裂缝使炭化不均,使受火后木柱的破坏形态由轴压转变为偏压破坏。受火木柱表面有裂缝处及角部的炭化速度加大;随着含水率降低,炭化速度有所增加;随着受火时间增加,炭化速度有所降低。     

Brandverhalten von Hohlkastendecken aus Holz

Fire behaviour of timber slabs made of hollow core elements. This paper presents an overview of experimental tests on the fire behaviour of timber slabs made of hollow core elements. The fire tests aim at supplying basic data and information for an extended safe use of timber structures, particularly in multi‐storey buildings. A series of large scale fire tests on timber slabs was performed by the Institute of Structural Engineering of the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Zurich in order to enlarge the experimental background of the design methods for a fire resistance of 60 and more minutes. Further a series of small scale fire tests permitted to investigate the fire performance of different types of joints between the timber elements, the influence of acoustic perforations as well as the fire behaviour of hollow core elements filled with different insulation materials.     

Experimental analysis of cross-laminated timber panels in fire

Design models of timber structures in fire usually take into account the loss in cross-section due to charring of wood. For cross-laminated timber panels in fire only little information on charring is available. The paper describes and discusses the results of an extensive testing programme on the fire behaviour of cross-laminated timber panels under ISO-fire exposure. The fire tests were performed on the small horizontal furnace (1.0×0.8 m) at the Empa in Duebendorf. Particular attention is given to the comparison of the fire behaviour of cross-laminated timber panels with homogeneous timber panels. The results of the fire tests showed that the fire behaviour of cross-laminated timber panels is strongly influenced by the behaviour of the adhesive used for bonding the cross-laminated timber panels. Depending on the properties of the adhesives at elevated temperatures falling off of the charred layers was clearly observed during the fire tests, leading to increased charring rates in comparison to homogeneous timber panels. This is the same effect as observed for initially protected timber members after the fire protection has fallen off. For the specimens where no falling off of the charred layers was observed the fire behaviour was similar to that of homogeneous timber panels.     

Assessment of Eurocode 5 Charring Rate Calculation Methods

The base hypothesis for the assessment of fire resistance of timber structures by simple calculation models is that for temperatures above 300°C, timber is no longer able to sustain any load. Consequently, the determination of the location of the 300°C isotherm, the char depth, is decisive for the result of fire resistance calculation methods. The charring rate (CR) of timber is dependent of numerous factors, such as wood species (density, permeability and composition), moisture content and direction of heat transfer (parallel or perpendicular to the grain). Eurocode 5, Part 1–2, presents several methods for the calculation of fire resistance of timber structures that are divided into simplified and advanced. In this paper simplified and advanced methods are compared regarding the calculation of the char depth and residual cross section strength. Finite element simulations have been performed, employing the proposed timber properties of Eurocode 5 using the finite element code SAFIR. The influence of parameters such as timber density and moisture has been investigated. The results obtained with finite element calculations were then compared with Eurocode 5 simplified models. Some inconsistencies between the two methods have been observed. Proposals are presented to overcome some of the inconsistencies as well as to extend the applicability of the models.     

基于炭化速度的梁柱木构件防火设计方法研究

由于缺乏对木结构火灾性能的系统研究,现行国家标准《木结构设计规范》(GB 50005-2003)(2005版)和《建筑设计防火规范》(GB 50016-2014)仅对木结构构件的耐火极限进行了相关规定,没有涉及木材的燃烧机理、炭化速度以及木构件耐火极限的计算方法,限制了木结构向多层和大跨方向的发展。本文较系统地研究了我国工程常用树种的燃烧性能和炭化速度,得到了木材炭化速度计算式,提出了与试验结果吻合的木构件基于炭化速度的防火设计方法,为相关标准的制修订提供依据,为木结构在我国的推广应用提供支撑。     

木结构火灾性能研究进展

在已有木结构火灾性能研究资料基础上,分析和总结了木结构火灾特征、木材炭化机理和微观结构变化、木材炭化速度模型、受火木构件剩余承载力、持荷木构件耐火极限等研究现状,并提出了需要进一步研究的重点。     

传统地仗保护圆木柱受火后力学性能的试验研究

传统木结构建筑的防火性能是制约其长期安全使用的重要因素。通过6组18根不同表面处理圆木柱受火后力学性能的对比试验研究,分析不同表面处理不同受火时间后圆木柱剩余承载力、初始刚度和炭化速度的变化规律,了解不同表面处理对圆木柱受火后力学性能的影响规律。结果表明,未受火对比试件和受火时间较短的圆木柱均呈轴压破坏特征,受火时间较长圆木柱呈偏压破坏特征。受火后试件剩余承载力较未受火对比试件降低5.3%~80.2%,降低幅度与受火时间成正比、与截面尺寸成反比;传统地仗保护试件剩余承载力损失程度明显小于表面无处理试件和表面涂抹防火涂料试件。受火后圆木柱初始刚度显著降低,降低幅度随受火时间增加而增加,有传统地仗保护试件降低幅度小于表面无处理试件。传统地仗保护试件受火炭化后表面有一层白色覆盖物,其炭化速度小于表面无处理试件。数值模拟结果与试验结果符合较好,可供传统历史木结构受火后的评估鉴定。     

Thermal Analysis of Hollow Steel Columns Exposed to Localised Fires

In fires in large compartments like enclosed car parks, airport terminals and industrial halls, the uniform distribution of gas temperature of post-flashover stages are unlikely to occur; in these cases, the thermal actions of a localised fire must be taken into account. In order to design steel structures for a localised fire, very detailed data concerning the development of temperatures in steel is required. EN 1991-1-2 presents a simplified model for calculating the temperatures in ceiling slabs and in the beams that may support such slabs; however, no simplified calculation model for the heat transfer in vertical elements, such as columns, is yet available. There is a need for more experimental data on real scale structures exposed to localised fires. A research project on the evaluation of temperatures in steel columns exposed to localised fires was carried out at the University of Coimbra. Full-scale natural fire tests were used to test columns, instead of conducting the usual furnace tests. This paper presents and discusses the results of the experimental tests on unprotected hollow steel columns exposed to localised fires, each of them simulating a distinct fire scenario according to different fire loads, positions and ventilation conditions. During the fire tests, real measurements showed flame heights and burning times different to those preliminarily estimated: flame heights had been conservatively predicted; while, the duration of the burning had been significantly underestimated.     

经一麻五灰地仗处理的木梁三面受火耐火极限试验研究

传统木结构建筑木构件表面通常采用地仗处理进行保护,而地仗处理对木构件耐火性能的影响规律尚不清晰。为此,通过4组10根三面受火木梁耐火极限的对比试验,研究了截面尺寸、持荷水平、是否地仗处理等因素对木梁耐火极限的影响规律,提出了剩余截面法计算木梁耐火极限,并提出了木梁热力耦合数值分析模型。结果表明,三面受火木梁耐火极限随持荷水平的增加明显降低,当持荷比由30%增加至50%时,木梁耐火极限降低19.6%~31.7%,平均降低17.5min;三面受火木梁耐火极限随截面尺寸增加显著提高,当截面尺寸由100mm×200mm增加至200mm×400mm时,耐火极限提高95.1%~107.8%,平均增加40.0min;木梁表面经一麻五灰地仗处理后,耐火极限提高21.3%~429%,平均提高15.8min。不同持荷水平和截面尺寸木梁内部距离边缘相同位置处的温度变化相近,表面采用一麻五灰地仗处理可显著延缓木梁内部温度的上升速率,木梁两个方向的炭化速度平均值为0.54mm/min,与未作表面处理的木梁相比降低19.4%。基于剩余截面法和数值模拟得到的三面受火木梁耐火极限预测值与试验值的误差在±15%以内,基本满足工程精度要求。     

四面受火胶合木中长柱耐火极限试验研究

通过4组10根胶合木中长柱四面受火的耐火极限试验,研究截面尺寸、持荷水平、阻燃涂料等对胶合木中长柱耐火极限的影响规律。通过理论分析提出了胶合木中长柱基于炭化速度的耐火极限计算方法,并采用有限元软件建立了胶合木柱热力耦合数值分析模型。结果表明,随着持荷水平增加,四面受火胶合木柱耐火极限明显降低,当持荷比由30%增加至50%时,耐火极限平均降低24. 5 min;随着截面尺寸增加,四面受火胶合木柱耐火极限显著提高,当截面尺寸由200 mm×200 mm增加至300 mm×300 mm时,耐火极限平均增加28. 0 min;当胶合木柱表面采用阻燃涂料涂刷后,耐火极限平均增加4. 0 min。胶层、持荷水平和截面尺寸对试件内部距离边缘相同位置处的温度变化无明显影响,表面涂抹阻燃涂料可稍降低试件内部温度的上升速度。垂直胶层方向和平行胶层方向的炭化速度无明显差异,有阻燃涂料处理的木柱炭化速度略小于无阻燃涂料处理的木柱炭化速度。基于剩余截面法计算的四面受火胶合木中长柱耐火极限计算值与试验值的相对误差绝对值的平均值为6. 5%,基本满足工程精度要求。有限元模拟得到的耐火极限与试验值的平均相对误差为8....     

Fire resistance of timbers from tropical countries and comparison of experimental charring rates with various models

Tropical hardwood species are more and more used in the field of construction due to the particular qualities they can offer. Presently it is no longer possible to envisage the development of construction materials and products without taking into consideration the problem of their fire behaviour, and more particularly of their fire resistance. In the case of timber elements, this characteristic is mainly influenced by the charring rate of the external layers of the element. On the other hand this parameter is influenced by the density of the material.Limited information is available on the charring rate of tropical hardwood species. Therefore experimental investigations have been conducted at the University of Liege to study this characteristic. Seven tropical and three timber species from temperate countries have been examined. Two types of test have been used, one on small specimens, the other on a construction element made of one single material. In the first type, 20 specimens have been manufactured by gluing several laminates together. The specimens were instrumented with four thermocouples inserted at various depths in four different laminates. In the second type, a non-loaded wall made of 12 glued-laminated spruce beam profiles was instrumented with thermocouples embedded at different depths in the panel for the evaluation of the charring rate.Experimental charring rates have been compared with the results derived from Eurocode EC5-1.2 recommendation [ENV 1995-1-2. Eurocode 5: Design of timber structures – Part 1–2: General rules – Structural fire design. European prestandard; 1994], Australian standard AS 1720.4 relation [AS 1720.4. Timber structures Part 4: fire resistance of structural timber members. North Sydney, Australia: Standards Australia; 1990] and White’s model [Charring rates of different wood species. PhD dissertation. Madison University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, 1988; White RH, Erik V, Nordheim EV. Charring rate of wood for ASTM E119 exposure. Fire Technol 1992;28(1)]. This comparison shows that the results obtained from these three models are not entirely satisfactory for tropical hardwood species. Therefore a new model has been proposed.     

基于无损检测的梁柱式木框架受火后剩余承载力研究

为利用无损检测评估木框架受火后剩余承载力,进行了两榀梁柱式木框架受火试验、阻抗仪无损检测试验以及火灾后剩余承载力试验研究,了解不同受火时间下木框架炭化速度、破坏形态和剩余承载力的变化规律,并采用ABAQUS软件对受火后木框架进行数值模拟分析,验证其极限承载力及破坏规律。研究结果表明：受火后木框架构件梁柱炭化速度相差不大,其炭化速度随受火时间的增大而减小;受火后木材材性参数与阻抗值存在一定的线性回归关系;考虑小试件强度转化为构件强度的影响因素后,受火后木框架构件材性参数亦可通过阻抗值获得;受火后木框架极限承载力明显降低,最终为梁跨中底部拉裂破坏;结合无损检测手段获得的受火后木框架构件材性参数,进行有限元模拟的结果与试验吻合,因此采用无损检测对受火后木框架剩余承载力评估是可行的。     

石灰膏抹面木梁受火后受力性能静力试验研究

木梁受火后由于炭化作用将使其有效截面减少、承载能力降低.通过2组11根木梁三面受火后力学性能的对比试验研究,分析了石灰膏抹面对木梁火灾性能影响.研究结果表明:对比木梁、三面受火无石灰膏抹面木梁和三面受火有石灰膏抹面木梁的破坏形态基本相似;三面受火30min的石灰膏抹面木梁由于含水率降低且木材未遭受炭化损伤,其承载力反而...     

四面受火木柱耐火极限的试验研究

通过6根四面受火木柱耐火极限的对比试验,研究不同持荷水平、是否采用石灰膏抹面对木柱耐火极限的影响。研究结果表明,四面受火木柱耐火极限随着荷载水平的增加而明显降低。采用石灰膏抹面后,其耐火极限有所增加。石灰膏抹面能有效降低四面受火木柱内的温升梯度,延缓木柱开始炭化的时间,降低炭化速度。     

中空夹层方钢管再生混凝土柱火灾后剩余承载力

为研究中空夹层方钢管再生混凝土柱火灾后剩余力学性能,运用有限元分析软件ABAQUS建立了ISO 834标准火灾作用后中空夹层方钢管再生混凝土柱的有限元模型,分析了截面温度场和应力场的变化规律。在此基础上分析了混凝土强度、钢材强度、计算长度、受火时间、空心率、混凝土取代率、偏心率等参数对构件火灾后剩余力学性能的影响;结合大量计算结果给出了中空夹层方钢管再生混凝土柱火灾后剩余承载力简化计算公式。结果表明:构件的火灾后剩余承载力随钢材强度和混凝土强度的增加而增加;构件火灾后剩余承载力随计算长度和受火时间的增加,总体呈降低趋势,当受火时间超过60 min时,构件火灾后剩余承载力急剧降低;空心率和混凝土取代率对构件火灾后剩余承载力影响较小,构件火灾后剩余承载力随空心率的增加而降低,随混凝土取代率的增加先增加后降低;构件火灾后剩余承载力随偏心率的增加而降低;所提公式计算精度良好,可为中空夹层方钢管再生混凝土柱抗火设计提供参考。     

Behaviour of Loaded Cross-Laminated Timber Wall Elements in Fire Conditions

Cross-laminated timber (CLT) is increasingly being used in medium-rise timber buildings for a number of reasons, such as rapidity of construction, cost effectiveness and robustness. Like for other building materials, verification of the load-bearing performance in fire conditions is an important issue. Experimental fire tests have been performed on loaded CLT wall elements at research institutes in Sweden and Italy. In total, three large-scale and four medium-scale tests have been carried out. The aim was to gain information about initially protected and unprotected elements, to be used for classification and also for validation of calculation models. In the test series, reference tests at normal temperature were included to obtain information (e.g. stiffness, strength) about the material tested in fire conditions. In addition, model-scale fire tests were performed to investigate the loss in stiffness resulting from fire exposure and the effect of different protection types. Loaded fire tests varied in the range of 41.8 min to 120 min, depending on the CLT structure, the level of load, and the type of protection. Data on temperature within specimens and residual cross-sections were collected. Charring rates evaluated from experimental results were comparable with values proposed by Eurocode for the design of timber structures. Conservative solutions were obtained by using simplified design methods and comparing their results to test results and results of advanced modelling. It was shown that the load-bearing performance of CLT may show abrupt changes due to its layered structure. It is strongly recommended that a minimum residual depth depending on the CLT structure should be required in order to ensure robust building products.     

燃烧后木材顺纹抗压性能试验研究

为研究木材的耐火性能,对20个兴安落叶松木材试件进行了燃烧试验,其中一半试件涂刷了阻燃剂,得到了不同燃烧时间下的木材炭化层厚度,并用线性拟合得到了木材炭化速率;将燃烧后的试件加工成小试块,进行了木材顺纹抗压试验.结果表明:燃烧会使残余部分木材顺纹抗压强度降低,且试件顺纹抗压承载力也随燃烧时间的增加而降低,其变化规律可用线性函数描述;采用涂刷处理方法的阻燃剂对木材耐火性能的影响主要表现在木材燃烧的早期,能减小炭化速率,但对木材强度损失的影响不大.