Surmised state of accommodation to stereoscopic three-dimensional images with binocular disparity

Three-dimensional image (3-D image) was experimentally generated by the binocular disparity principle, and psychological tests were performed in relation to the state of accommodation. An image of a square formed by the time-sharing system using liquid crystal (LC) shutter glasses was displayed before the CRT screen (forward image) by the crossed visual-line method and behind the monitor screen (backward image) by the non-crossed visual-line method. The subjects were requested to subjectively compare each image with the original image on the CRT screen in relation to the size. The forward image displayed by the crossed visual lines looked smaller than the original image, while the backward image displayed by the non-crossed visual lines looked larger. In consideration of the developmental mechanism of micropsia occurring in patients with accommodative palsy or paresis of accommodation and macropsia occurring in patients with accommodative spasm, it was surmised that, in the generation of 3-D image due to binocular disparity, accommodation works so that the original image position is maintained.     

Human fusion range for polarized 3D display

If discrepancy between accommodation and convergence caused by a stereoscopic display exceeds fusion range of human eyes, viewers will see ghosting image, which leads to the loss of correct depth information and even causes severe visual fatigue. In this paper, an experiment aiming to investigate the binocular fusion range is conducted for a polarized 3D display. Two experimental trials are arranged to examine two aspects of fusion range including outward depth and inward depth. 3D modeling software is used to generate the test stereoscopic image pairs, which vary in depth by adjusting the separation between the virtual cameras. Angular parallax corresponding to the limit of fusion range is obtained by determining critical point of ghosting images. The experimental results show deviation between theoretical fusion range calculated by formula and experimental one.?0.223° to 0.275° represent critical fusion range for the polarized 3D display to avoid ghosting images.     

Visual comfort enhancement study based on visual attention detection for stereoscopic displays

Although numerous potential causes may lead to visual discomfort when viewing content on three‐dimensional (3D) displays, vergence–accommodation conflict is a particular cause of binocular parallax‐based stereoscopic displays, and it is unavoidable. Based on the study of 3D content visual attention, we proposed a novel stereoscopic depth adjustment method to improve the visual comfort and enhance perceived naturalness. The proposed method combined the 3D image saliency and specific viewing condition to establish a novel model for computing the optimum zero‐disparity plane of stereoscopic image. The results of perception experiments, focused on visual comfort and stereoscopic sensation, supported that the proposed method can significantly enhance stereoscopic viewing comfort and even can improve the stereoscopic sensation by insuring the 3D image fusion.     

Influence of depth and 3D crosstalk on blur in multi‐view 3D displays

Current 3D crosstalk equation was defined from the characteristics of 3D display using glasses. This equation is not suitable for multi‐view 3D display with larger view number as it gives the inappropriately large value. In 3D display using eyeglass, double images occur at large depth. But, in multi‐view 3D display with larger view number, blur occurs to larger width for the larger depth. Hence, blur phenomenon of multi‐view 3D display was investigated to understand the unique characteristics of multi‐view 3D display. For this purpose, ray tracing S/W was used to simulate 3D display image seen at the designed viewing distance, to calculate the relative luminance distribution, and to quantify the relation between blur and depth. Calculated results showed that incomplete image separation caused the overlap of multiple view images and the blur. Blur edge width (BEW) was proportional to the horizontal disparity and related to the depth. BEWR = (BEW) / (binocular disparity) was newly defined, and its usefulness for 3D characterization was investigated. BEW and BEWR might be useful as new measuring items to characterize multi‐view 3D display regarding 3D crosstalk.     

基于视差重映射的立体图像视觉舒适度提升

目的 针对人眼观看立体图像内容可能存在的视觉不舒适性,基于视差对立体图像视觉舒适度的影响,提出了一种结合全局线性和局部非线性视差重映射的立体图像视觉舒适度提升方法。方法 首先,考虑双目融合限制和视觉注意机制,分别结合空间频率和立体显著性因素提取立体图像的全局和局部视差统计特征,并利用支持向量回归构建客观的视觉舒适度预测模型作为控制视差重映射程度的约束;然后,通过构建的预测模型对输入的立体图像的视觉舒适性进行分析,就欠舒适的立体图像设计了一个两阶段的视差重映射策略,分别是视差范围的全局线性重映射和针对提取的潜在欠舒适区域内视差的局部非线性重映射;最后,根据重映射后的视差图绘制得到舒适度提升后的立体图像。结果 在IVY Lab立体图像舒适度测试库上的实验结果表明,相较于相关有代表性的视觉舒适度提升方法对于欠舒适立体图像的处理结果,所提出方法在保持整体场景立体感的同时,能更有效地提升立体图像的视觉舒适度。结论 所提出方法能够根据由不同的立体图像特征构建的视觉舒适度预测模型来自动实施全局线性和局部非线性视差重映射过程,达到既改善立体图像视觉舒适度、又尽量减少视差改变所导致的立体感削弱的目的,从而提升立体图像的整体3维体验。     

A method for reproducing apparent continuous depth in a stereoscopic display using “Depth‐Fused 3D” technology

Abstract— A new method that can present fine depth increments in a stereoscopic display is proposed. In typical stereoscopic displays, depth can be presented by binocular disparity, but binocular disparity of less than one pixel cannot be displayed because, in general, electronic displays have discrete pixels. We combined binocular disparity and modulation of the edge luminance in DFD (depth‐fused 3D) displays. In an experiment, the perceived depth could be continuously changed by modulating the edge luminance only. Therefore, continuous depth can be produced by combining binocular disparity and modulation of edge luminance distribution.     

The comparison of accommodative response and ocular movements in viewing 3D and 2D displays

Some people often appear asthenopia symptoms of eye fatigue, double vision, nausea, and dizziness while viewing 3D movies. By testing the changes of accommodation function and ocular movements during watching 3D and 2D movies, the factors in visual discomfort are confirmed in this study.20 subjects with normal visual acuity and binocular vision function view 3D and 2D movies with the same content for 30 min, and the amplitude of accommodation, binocular vergence ability, stereo-acuity, and tear break-up time of the subjects before and after viewing the films are measured. Furthermore, an open-field auto-refractor is utilized for synchronously testing the change of accommodative response while viewing 3D and 2D films, and Skalar IRIS tracking system is applied to record ocular movements through infrared positioning.In comparison with viewing 2D movies, the accommodative response and ocular movements reveal obvious changes while viewing 3D movies. The accommodation ability and binocular vergence ability obviously drop after viewing 3D movies; moreover, the stability of stereo-acuity and tear film also gets worse. The changes of such physiological factors might be the major cause of asthenopia.     

Changes in oculomotor functions before and after loading of a 3-D visually-guided task by using a head-mounted display

Changes in visual and oculomotor functions were tested in eight young volunteer subjects after performing a 3-D visually-guided task for 25min. The visual stimuli were given by using a head-mounted display. No significant change was detected in the AC/A ratio and the stereo-acuity. Changes were found in refraction and ocular convergence. Slight but significant hyperopic changes were detected in refraction after the task. The mean amplitude of convergence eye movement elicited by test Stimuli after the task was significantly changed in the pooled data. They were significantly reduced when the subjects were tested by the disparity step of 0.7°, but significantly increased when tested by the step of 6°. The mean amplitudes were not significantly changed after the task when the subjects were tested by the intermediate disparity steps of 1.5 and 3°. In data obtained for each subject, the amplitude of ocular convergence evoked by test stimuli after the task was reduced significantly in most subjects. In the majority of subjects, however, the results were not consistently significant when they were tested by step stimuli with different disparities. In only a few subjects, the changes were consistently significant except when the largest disparity was tested. On the other hand, the mean peak velocities of ocular convergence after the task were not significantly changed in the pooled data. In individual subjects, the changes of velocities of ocular convergence evoked by test stimuli after the task were more variable: they increased in some subjects but decreased in other subjects. Consequently, in only one subject, both amplitudes and peak velocities of ocular convergence tested by the-disparity steps of 0.7, 1.5 and 3° were consistently reduced after the task. The changes in refraction or ocular convergence found in this study were relatively small, and were not in the pathological range. The significance of these data are discussed. The results of the present study provide the basis for the more detailed analyses of the human factor in the head-mounted display.     

Depth perception for moving images shown on a large LED display with an aperture grille

Abstract— A type of depth illusion created by the use of an aperture grille is reported. When viewing a moving target through multiple slits, a movement with depth is perceived, which was originally reported (see Ref. 11). The binocular delay is considered to cause a virtual disparity between both perspective images with apparent movement. By using an LED display with an aperture grille as a stereoscopic display, perceived distance caused by a binocular delay has been measured. The measured distance is compared with the perceived distance for stereoscopic still images shown on a stereoscopic LED panel. The comparison supported that the binocular delay is converted into binocular disparity. Furthermore, pair‐comparison tests were conducted to investigate depth impressions. It was found that use of an aperture grille improves depth impression for a movie that was taken with a laterally moving camera.     

Measuring visual fatigue and visual discomfort associated with 3‐D displays

Abstract— This research identifies methods for signs of visual complaints associated with stereoscopic displays. Two potential causes for contradictory results concerning these signs in previous research are hypothesized: (1) not all clinical tests are equally appropriate and (2) there is a natural variation in susceptibility amongst people with normal vision. An optometric screening differentiated participants with moderate binocular status (MBS) from those with good binocular status (GBS). In a 2 × 2 within‐subjects design (2‐D vs. 3‐D and MBS vs. GBS), a questionnaire and eight optometric tests (i.e., binocular acuity, aligning prism, fixation disparity, heterophoria, convergent and divergent fusional reserves, vergence facility, and accommodation response) were each administered before and immediately after a reading task. Results revealed that only participants with MBS in 3‐D conditions showed clinically meaningful changes in fusion range, experienced more visual discomfort, and performed worse on the reading task. Acombination of fusion range measurements and self‐report is appropriate for evaluating visual complaints of stereoscopic stills, and people with a MBS are more susceptible to visual complaints associated with stereoscopic displays. A simple measurement tool, i.e., the ratio of reading performance between 2‐D and 3‐D, to categorize people based on their binocular status is proposed.     

Dual-view holographic AR display based on Bragg mismatched reconstruction of the holographic optical element

A method for dual-view holographic display based on Bragg mismatched reconstruction of holographic optical element (HOE) is proposed. Under the Bragg mismatched condition, the reconstructed images are guided into two separated viewing zones to realize dual-view holographic display. Meanwhile, the viewing angle of each perspective is increased to 11.2°, which is almost 2.5 times as large as the traditional holographic display system. The design process of HOE is simple only by interference of plane reference wave and converging spherical signal wave, which has high practicability. Furthermore, the HOE can mix the virtual 3D image with real-world scenes, which could implement augmented reality (AR) display. Experiments validate that the proposed system can achieve dual-view holographic AR three-dimensional (3D) display with accommodation effect.     

空间轴对称目标三维姿态测量方法的研究

提出一种双目视觉测量空间轴对称目标姿态的新方法,应用线性方法获取轴对称目标在像面的轴线,通过两像面轴线与各自光心所成的平面相交,得到被测目标的轴线的方向矢量,进行三维姿态测量,避免了传统姿态测量中左右像面目标特征点的特征匹配或灰度匹配。模拟实验结果表明:该方法姿态角测量误差小于0.5°;且计算速度快,结果稳定,能够满足实时处理的要求。     

Experimental determination of the range of binocular disparity for which stereoscopic fusion occurs at a viewing distance of 2.5 m for a stereoscopic TV

The threshold for binocular disparity for which a participant can observe a clear stereoscopic image on a 3D TV using Patterned Retarder technology and polarizing eyeglasses is determined for a viewing distance of 2.5 m. An optotype, the letter “m” with a line thickness of 1.08 mm in the upward or downward direction, was used as the stereoscopic stimulus. Under the measurement conditions of the increase and decrease of binocular disparity of the stereoscopic stimulus, the binocular disparity thresholds for 40 participants were measured for the horizontal direction. Most of the participants were in their twenties. The thresholds were measured to be slightly larger for the condition of increasing binocular disparity compared with the condition of decreasing binocular disparity. Personal differences were measured to be noticeable.     

Content-aware disparity adjustment for different stereo displays

In this paper, we present an effective disparity mapping method for binocular stereoscopic image. It is inspired by the observation that its displayed depth would change, when a stereoscopic image is displayed on different size screens. The phenomenon may bring an uncomfortable experience for viewers. To make a comfortable stereoscopic image for viewers, moreover to adapt a stereoscopic image to a target display screen, we propose a content-aware disparity adjustment method. Firstly, the disparity mapping is established to control and retarget the depth of a stereoscopic scene. Then, the relationship between the disparity editing and image content editing is established to guide the proposed warping model. At last, to implement the disparity mapping operator, we propose a content-aware stereoscopic mesh warping model, which can simultaneously avoid the salient region distortion and adjust disparity to a target range by establishing the relationship. Experimental results show that the proposed method can effectively adjust disparity of stereoscopic image, which not only avoids the salient region distortion and adjusts disparity to a target range.     

Applying fuzzy theory in selecting the image quality factors of 3D televisions

With the promotion of technology, state-of-the-art TVs already possess the functions of 3D. This study applied fuzzy theory to construct a hierarchy of 3D TV image quality factors and got the weights for each of them. Several 3D TV image quality factors were selected based on a review of the literature. A fuzzy c-means algorithm was then used to classify these factors into the criteria, and the hierarchy of the fuzzy analytic network process (ANP) was established. Thirty participants were recruited to conduct the questionnaire survey and the rating of the overall ergonomics. Using the calculation of fuzzy ANP, the weights for 3D TV image quality factors and different brands of 3D TVs were obtained. The results indicated that binocular disparity, crosstalk, and resolution were the three most important factors affecting 3D TV image quality. Therefore, 3D TV manufacturers could consider these important factors in future 3D TV product designs in order to promote customers’ purchase intention.Relevance to industryBased on the results obtained from fuzzy ANP, this study found that the three most important factors affecting 3D TV image quality are binocular disparity, crosstalk, and resolution. The results of this study could serve as a reference for 3D TV manufacturers in designing future products.     

True 3‐D scanned voxel displays using single or multiple light sources

Abstract— Conventional stereoscopic displays require viewers to unnaturally keep eye accommodation fixed at one focal distance while they dynamically change vergence to view objects at different distances. This forced decoupling of reflexively linked processes fatigues eyes, causes discomfort, compromises image quality, and may lead to pathologies in developing visual systems. Volumetric displays can overcome this conflict, but only for small objects placed within a limited range of viewing distances and accommodation levels, and cannot render occlusion cues correctly. Our multi‐planar True 3‐D displays generate accommodation cues that match vergence and stereoscopic retinal disparity demands and can display images and objects at viewing distances throughout the full range of human accommodation (from 6.25 cm to infinity), better mimicking natural vision and minimizing eye fatigue.     

改进的跨尺度引导滤波立体匹配算法

作为双目三维重建中的关键步骤,双目立体匹配算法完成了从平面视觉到立体视觉的转化.但如何平衡双目立体匹配算法的运行速度和精度仍然是一个棘手的问题.本文针对现有的局部立体匹配算法在弱纹理、深度不连续等特定区域匹配精度低的问题,并同时考虑到算法实时性,提出了一种改进的跨多尺度引导滤波的立体匹配算法.首先融合AD和Census变换两种代价计算方法,然后采用基于跨尺度的引导滤波进行代价聚合,在进行视差计算时通过制定一个判断准则判断图像中每一个像素点的最小聚合代价对应的视差值是否可靠,当判断对应的视差值不可靠时,对像素点构建基于梯度相似性的自适应窗口,并基于自适应窗口修正该像素点对应的视差值.最后通过视差精化得到最终的视差图.在Middlebury测试平台上对标准立体图像对的实验结果表明,与传统基于引导滤波器的立体匹配算法相比具有更高的精度.     

Visual accommodation changes in VDU-operators related to environmental lighting and screen quality

Abstract

Visual problems involved in the operation of display units have been investigated in several studies (Höller et al. 1975, Läubli et al. 1980). The results of these studies indicate mainly that visual tasks using VDU terminals may induce temporary effects in the visual accommodation system. There are, however, suggestions that visual impairment of the task depends, among other factors, particularly on workstation lighting and screen quality (Östberg 1978, Läubli et al. 1980).

In the present pilot study an attempt was made to investigate possible relations between (i) operators' accommodation changes after six hours work at a display unit and (ii) work-station lighting and screen characteristics. The measurements were carried out in two separate field studies at a Telecom Directory Enquiry Center. Operator's visual accommodation before and after work, workplace lighting, luminance contrasts and screen qualities of 29 display screen operators were measured during day and night shifts. Field laser optometry was used for determining the state of visual accommodation. Photometric and radiometric characteristics of the display screens were measured using an EG & G spectrometer-photometer.

The study revealed a low significant relationship between lighting conditions on the one side and incidence of accommodation changes on the other. More operators showed over-accommodation when working at workplaces with higher luminance contrast. The influence of screen characteristics, such as screen illuminance, luminance and irradiance upon visual accommodation were evident during the night shift.     

基于双目视觉与目标识别拟合的三维屏幕定位方法

为解决针对三维立体屏幕的定位问题,提出了基于双目视觉与目标识别、拟合的屏幕定位算法。首先利用边缘检测算法提取屏幕轮廓,获取屏幕在二维图像中的位置;其次利用双目视觉算法对识别出的屏幕进行深度数据采集,利用最小二乘法对采集的屏幕空间数据进行空间拟合得到屏幕的空间方程;最后计算屏幕顶点在三维空间中的位置从而确定屏幕范围,至此完成在三维空间中对屏幕的定位。实验结果表明,该方法计算得到的屏幕位置具有较高准确度。