Expertise effects in memory recall: Comment on Vicente and Wang (1998).

K. J. Vicente and J. H. Wang proposed a "constraint attunement hypothesis" to explain the large effects of domain expertise on memory recall observed in a number of task domains. They claimed to have found serious defects in alternative explanations of these effects, which their theory overcomes. Reexamination of the evidence shows that their theory is not novel but has been anticipated by those they criticized and that other current published theories of the phenomena do not have the defects that Vicente and Wang attributed to them. Vicente and Wang's views reflect underlying differences about (a) emphasis on performance versus process in psychology and (b) how theories and empirical knowledge interact and progress with the development of a science. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cognitive Ability, Expertise, and Age Differences in Following Air-Traffic Control Instructions.

Differences in cognitive ability and domain-specific expertise may help explain age differences in pilot performance. Pilots heard air-traffic controller messages and then executed them while "flying" in a simulator. Messages varied in length and speech rate. Age was associated with lower accuracy, but the expected Age x Message Difficulty interactions were not obtained. Expertise, as indexed by pilot ratings, was associated with higher accuracy; yet expertise did not reduce age differences in accuracy. The effect of age on communication task accuracy was largely explainable as an age-associated decrease in working memory span, which in turn was explainable as decreases in both speed and interference control. Results are discussed within frameworks of deliberate practice and cognitive mediation of age differences. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The Role of Constraints in Expert Memory.

A great deal of research has been devoted to developing process models of expert memory. However, K. J. Vicente and J. H. Wang (1998) proposed (a) that process theories do not provide an adequate account of expert recall in domains in which memory recall is a contrived task and (b) that a product theory, the constraint attunement hypothesis (CAH), has received a significant amount of empirical support. We compared 1 process theory (the template theory; TT; F. Gobet & H. A. Simon, 1996c) with the CAH in chess. Chess players (N=36) differing widely in skill levels were required to recall briefly presented chess positions that were randomized in various ways. Consistent with TT, but inconsistent with the CAH, there was a significant skill effect in a condition in which both the location and distribution of the pieces were randomized. These and other results suggest that process models such as TT can provide a viable account of expert memory in chess. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Converging Evidence That Stereotype Threat Reduces Working Memory Capacity.

Although research has shown that priming negative stereotypes leads to lower performance among stigmatized individuals, little is understood about the cognitive mechanism that accounts for these effects. Three experiments tested the hypothesis that stereotype threat interferes with test performance because it reduces individuals' working memory capacity. Results show that priming self-relevant negative stereotypes reduces women's (Experiment 1) and Latinos' (Experiment 2) working memory capacity. The final study revealed that a reduction in working memory capacity mediates the effect of stereotype threat on women's math performance (Experiment 3). Implications for future research on stereotype threat and working memory are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

“Verbal working memory and language production: Common approaches to the serial ordering of verbal information”: Correction to Acheson and MacDonald (2009).

Reports an error in "Verbal working memory and language production: Common approaches to the serial ordering of verbal information" by Daniel J. Acheson and Maryellen C. MacDonald (Psychological Bulletin, 2009[Jan], Vol 135[1], 50-68). In the article “Verbal Working Memory and Language Production: Common Approaches to the Serial Ordering of Verbal Information” by Daniel J. Acheson and Maryellen C. MacDonald (Psychological Bulletin, 2009, Vol. 135, No. 1, pp. 50–68), the initial sentence of the text of the article (p. 50) contains an error. The first name of the researcher Andrew W. Ellis was listed incorrectly. The sentence should read as follows: Nearly 30 years ago, Andrew W. Ellis (1980) observed that errors on tests of verbal working memory (WM) paralleled those that occur naturally in speech production. (The following abstract of the original article appeared in record 2008-18777-007.) Verbal working memory (WM) tasks typically involve the language production architecture for recall; however, language production processes have had a minimal role in theorizing about WM. A framework for understanding verbal WM results is presented here. In this framework, domain-specific mechanisms for serial ordering in verbal WM are provided by the language production architecture, in which positional, lexical, and phonological similarity constraints are highly similar to those identified in the WM literature. These behavioral similarities are paralleled in computational modeling of serial ordering in both fields. The role of long-term learning in serial ordering performance is emphasized, in contrast to some models of verbal WM. Classic WM findings are discussed in terms of the language production architecture. The integration of principles from both fields illuminates the maintenance and ordering mechanisms for verbal information. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The attentional blink provides episodic distinctiveness: Sparing at a cost.

The attentional blink (J. E. Raymond, K. L. Shapiro, & K. M. Arnell, 1992) refers to an apparent gap in perception observed when a second target follows a first within several hundred milliseconds. Theoretical and computational work have provided explanations for early sets of blink data, but more recent data have challenged these accounts by showing that the blink is attenuated when subjects encode strings of stimuli (J. Kawahara, T. Kumada, & V. Di Lollo, 2006; M. R. Nieuwenstein & M. C. Potter, 2006; C. N. Olivers, 2007) or are distracted (C. N. Olivers & S. Nieuwenhuis, 2005) while viewing the rapid serial visual presentation stream. The authors describe the episodic simultaneous type, serial token model, a computational account of encoding visual stimuli into working memory that suggests that the attentional blink is a cognitive strategy rather than a resource limitation. This model is composed of neurobiologically plausible elements and simulates the attentional blink with a competitive attentional mechanism that facilitates the formation of episodically distinct representations within working memory. In addition to addressing the blink, the model addresses the phenomena of repetition blindness and whole report superiority, producing predictions that are supported by experimental work. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Expert memory: a comparison of four theories

This paper compares four current theories of expertise with respect to chess players' memory: Chase and Simon's chunking theory, Holding's SEEK theory, Ericsson and Kintsch's long-term working memory theory, and Gobet and Simon's template theory (Chase, W.G., Simon, H.A., 1973a. Perception in chess. Cognitive Psychology 4, 55-81; Holding, D.H., 1985. The Psychology of Chess Skill. Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ; Ericsson, K.A., Kintsch, W., 1995. Long-term working memory. Psychological Review 102, 211-245; Gobet, F., Simon, H.A., 1996b. Templates in chess memory: a mechanism for recalling several boards. Cognitive Psychology 31, 1-40). The empirical areas showing the largest discriminative power include recall of random and distorted positions, recall with very short presentation times, and interference studies. Contrary to recurrent criticisms in the literature, it is shown that the chunking theory is consistent with most of the data. However, the best performance in accounting for the empirical evidence is obtained by the template theory. The theory, which unifies low-level aspects of cognition, such as chunks, with high-level aspects, such as schematic knowledge and planning, proposes that chunks are accessed through a discrimination net, where simple perceptual features are tested, and that they can evolve into more complex data structures (templates) specific to classes of positions. Implications for the study of expertise in general include the need for detailed process models of expert behavior and the need to use empirical data spanning the traditional boundaries of perception, memory, and problem solving.     

Expertise and age-related changes in components of intelligence.

In a sample of 263 male GO players at 48 levels of expertise and ranging from 18 to 78 years of age, it was found that factors of expertise deductive reasoning (EDR) and expertise working memory (EWM) were independent of factors of fluid reasoning (Gf) and short-term working memory (STWM) that, along with cognitive speed (Gs), have been found to characterize decline of intelligence in adulthood. The main effects of analyses of cross-sectional age differences indicated age-related decline in EDR and EWM as well as in Gf, STWM, and Gs. However, interaction and partialing analyses indicated that decline in EDR and EWM decreased to no decline with increase in level of expertise. The results thus suggest that with increase in factors known to raise the level of expertise—particularly, intensive, well-designed practice there may be no age-related decline in the intelligence that is measured in the abilities of expertise. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

An ecological theory of expertise effects in memory recall.

Previous research has shown a significant correlation between domain expertise and memory recall performance after a very brief exposure time. Despite the large number of such studies, several findings in the literature have no satisfactory theoretical explanation. A novel theory based on an ecological approach is proposed to explain these results. This constraint attunement hypothesis provides a framework for identifying and representing the various levels of goal-relevant constraint in a domain. The theory predicts that there will be a memory expertise advantage in cases in which experts are attuned to the goal-relevant constraints in the material to be recalled and that the more constraint available, the greater the expertise advantage can be. The theory explains a number of diverse empirical findings in the literature in a coherent, unique, and parsimonious fashion and suggests a number of promising issues for future research. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Attention and intelligence: The validity of the Star Counting Test.

The mechanisms underlying performance on the Star Counting Test (SCT) and its nomothetic span were investigated along with the relationships between working memory capacity, fluid intelligence (Gf), speed, and school achievement. The SCT is an attention test for children that requires the alternation of forward and backward counting. The test is based on A. D. Baddeley and G. J. Hitch's (1974) model of working memory in conjunction with D. A. Norman and T. Shallice's (1986) theory of central executive functioning. Tests were administered to 1,122 boys and 1,100 girls in 4th grade from 111 Dutch schools. The SCT required flexible alternation, counting speed, and sustained effort. Factor analysis showed that the SCT forms one factor with other indicators of working memory capacity. There was also a strong association between working memory capacity and Gf. The two clearly differ, however, in their relation to speed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Interactions Among the Imagination, Expertise Reversal, and Element Interactivity Effects.

Interactions among the imagination, expertise reversal, and element interactivity effects were investigated in 2 experiments. In Experiment 1, less knowledgeable primary school students learning to use a bus timetable produced better performance under study than imagination conditions, but an increase in their experience reversed the result, producing the imagination effect. Experiment 2, in which students were taught to use a temperature line graph, replicated these results and demonstrated that the effects were more likely to be obtained using complex material. It was concluded that learners can engage more successfully in imagination procedures when learning has proceeded sufficiently to permit the information to be processed in working memory and that working memory limitations are of little consequence except when dealing with complex information. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The times, they are a changing: A review of Raising children in a socially toxic environment.

Reviews the book, Raising children in a socially toxic environment by J. Gabarino (1995). In this book, Garbarino sets out to offer his views on what childhood ought to be, how children map their own worlds (thus define, themselves), what their basic needs are, the levels in which those needs are being met, as well as offer suggestions for ways in which readers can change the "toxic environment" to aid in the healthy development of children and youth. The book is challenging to read because it is true. Although the pages are not replete with "hard data," they are filled with factual accounts that paint a discouraging, in fact depressing picture of the life of children in our communities. The book is powerful because, if successful, we are forced to accept the fact that this is American society today. There is no question that the issues articulated by Garbarino in this book, such as teenage homicide, gang warfare, domestic violence, and child abuse, are real. The influences of Urie Bronfenbrenner (1977) and ecological systems theory provide the conceptual framework for this book. Accordingly, development is the result of complex interactions among child and family systems and the social environment in which they function. Related to the ecological orientation is the notion that "it takes a village" to effect change. In other words, there is an implicit message that successful, healthy childrearing is the shared responsibility of individuals, groups, communities, external forces, and broad-based sanctions and regulations. As such, readers who take this book seriously will be forced to look at it not only as a professional resource with "good information," but as a call to accept a role for working within their individual and community contexts to influence change. Although the book falls short in providing concrete directives for change, it sends a strong message that we are all responsible, and a more subtle message that change is possible. If each and every reader could make one or two changes in their own behaviors and priorities as an outcome of reading this book, it will have served an invaluable service. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

"Levels of processing, encoding specificity, elaboration, and CHARM": Correction to Eich.

Reports an error in "Levels of processing, encoding specificity, elaboration, and CHARM" by Janet M. Eich (Psychological Review, 1985[Jan], Vol 92[1], 1-38). Equation 5 on page 11 was incorrect. The correct equation is provided in the erratum. (The following abstract of the original article appeared in record 1985-13697-001.) A model of cued recall called CHARM (composite holographic associative recall model) is applied to several issues that have been investigated within the depth-of-processing framework. It is shown that, given some straightforward, empirically testable assumptions about the representations of the to-be-remembered items themselves, CHARM can account for the main effect of depth of processing, the problem of the negatives, encoding–specificity interactions, and both facilitative and inhibitory effects of elaboration. The CHARM model is extended to encompass some depth-of-processing effects found in recognition memory. The highly interactive associative, storage, and retrieval mechanisms in the CHARM model are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The role of working memory in syntactic ambiguity resolution: A psychometric approach.

In 2 studies, the authors used a combination of psychometric and experimental techniques to investigate the effects of domain-general and domain-specific working memory factors on offline decisions concerning attachment of an ambiguous relative clause. Both studies used English and Dutch stimuli presented to English- and Dutch-speaking participants, respectively. In Study 1, readers with low working memory spans were less likely to use recency strategies for disambiguation than were readers with high spans. This finding is inconsistent with predictions of locality- and resource-based accounts of attachment. Psychometric analyses showed that both domain-specific (verbal) and domain-general working memory accounted for the effect. Study 2 found support for the hypothesis that segmentation strategies imposed during silent reading can account for the counterintuitive relationship. Results suggest that readers with low spans have a greater tendency to break up large segments of text because of their limited working memory, leading to high attachment of the ambiguous relative clause. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

von Restorff revisited: Isolation, generation, and memory for order.

The effects of isolation and generation on memory for order were investigated in 4 experiments. Exp 1 and 2 examined the effect of isolation on order retention. Previous investigations in this area have yielded equivocal results. Experiments 1 and 2 revealed that isolation enhances memory for order: Isolated items were repositioned more accurately than comparable items in control lists. Experiments 3 and 4 investigated the effect of generation on order retention. These experiments revealed that generation can enhance, disrupt, or have no effect on memory for order, depending on the relative number of generated items appearing within a list. Implications of these results for general theoretical accounts of isolation effects in memory are discussed. A simplified feature model (J. S. Nairne, see record 1990-27505-001) is shown to provide a general account of isolation effects. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Stroop theory, memory, and prefrontal cortical functioning: Reply to Cohen et al. (1997).

In this article, the authors respond to J. D. Cohen, K. O. Dunbar, D. M. Barch and T. S. Braver's (see record 1997-02838-005) comment on their target article (see record 1997-02838-004). The present article (a) takes issue with the characterization given by Cohen et al. of the authors' approach as a classical speed-of-processing account of Stroop effects, (b) discusses the value and relevance of other theoretical concepts, such as traditional accounts of working memory and parallel distributed processing (PDP) approaches to Stroop effects, (c) further examines the possibility that the differences the authors observed in Experiment 2 between normal participants' performance and that of participants with schizophrenia may have been due to distractor stimulus degradation, particularly for participants with schizophrenia, and (d) argues for the relevance of the prefrontal cortex, as well as other brain areas, in accounting for their results. The authors conclude with a final theoretical question. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Working memory in Alzheimer-type dementia.

Reviews experimental studies of working memory in dementia of the Alzheimer type (DAT), mainly focusing on investigations using A. D. Baddeley and G. J. Hitch's (1974) working memory model as a framework (e.g., Baddeley, see record 1992-26150-001). These studies show that the articulatory or phonological loop system is intact in early dementia, with a substantial impairment in the central executive system. The neural basis for this impairment is discussed, as are the practical implications of the working memory deficits for the diagnosis and management of Alzheimer's disease (AD). (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

"Task control and cognitive abilities of self and spouse in collaboration in middle-aged and older couples": Erratum.

Reports an error in "Task control and cognitive abilities of self and spouse in collaboration in middle-aged and older couples" by Cynthia A. Berg, Timothy W. Smith, Kelly J. Ko, Nancy J. M. Henry, Paul Florsheim, Gale Pearce, Bert N. Uchino, Michelle A. Skinner, Ryan M. Beveridge, Nathan Story and Kelly Glazer (Psychology and Aging, 2007[Sep], Vol 22[3], 420-427). Due to an editing mistake, the order of authorship was incorrect. The correct order is as follows: Berg, Smith, Ko, Beveridge, Story, Henry, Florsheim, Pearce, Uchino, Skinner, & Glazer. (The following abstract of the original article appeared in record 2007-13103-002.) Collaborative problem solving may be used by older couples to optimize cognitive functioning, with some suggestion that older couples exhibit greater collaborative expertise. The study explored age differences in 2 aspects of collaborative expertise: spouses' knowledge of their own and their spouse's cognitive abilities and the ability to fit task control to these cognitive abilities. The participants were 300 middle-aged and older couples who completed a hypothetical errand task. The interactions were coded for control asserted by husbands and wives. Fluid intelligence was assessed, and spouses rated their own and their spouse's cognitive abilities. The results revealed no age differences in couple expertise, either in the ability to predict their own and their spouse's cognitive abilities or in the ability to fit task control to abilities. However, gender differences were found. Women fit task control to their own and their spouse's cognitive abilities; men only fit task control to their spouse's cognitive abilities. For women only, the fit between control and abilities was associated with better performance. The results indicate no age differences in couple expertise but point to gender as a factor in optimal collaboration. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Irrelevant tones produce an irrelevant speech effect: Implications for phonological coding in working memory.

Addresses the possibility that tones disrupt serial recall of visually presented material in the same way as speech. A stream of changing tones is as disruptive of visual serial recall as 4 syllables (Exps 1 and 2). Similar effects were also shown with a repeated syllable that changed only in pitch (Exp 3). Just as for speech, the effect of tones is not at encoding but during storage of the serial lists (Exp 4 and 5). The results suggest that speech and tones are equipotent in their capacity to disrupt short-term memory. A "blackboard" model of working memory to account for the effects is outlined. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The relationships of working memory, secondary memory, and general fluid intelligence: Working memory is special.

Recent efforts have been made to elucidate the commonly observed link between working memory and reasoning ability. The results have been inconsistent, with some work suggesting that the emphasis placed on retrieval from secondary memory by working memory tests is the driving force behind this association (Mogle, Lovett, Stawski, & Sliwinski, 2008), whereas other research suggests retrieval from secondary memory is only partly responsible for the observed link between working memory and reasoning (Unsworth & Engle, 2006, 2007). In the present study, we investigated the relationship between processing speed, working memory, secondary memory, primary memory, and fluid intelligence. Although our findings show that all constructs are significantly correlated with fluid intelligence, working memory—but not secondary memory—accounts for significant unique variance in fluid intelligence. Our data support predictions made by Unsworth and Engle (2006, 2007) and suggest that the combined need for maintenance and retrieval processes present in working memory tests makes them special in their prediction of higher order cognition. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)