Model-based design of horizontal subsurface flow constructed treatment wetlands: a review

The increasing application of constructed wetlands for wastewater treatment coupled with increasingly strict water quality standards is an ever growing incentive for the development of better process design tools. This paper reviews design models for horizontal subsurface flow constructed treatment wetlands, ranging from simple rules of thumb and regression equations, to the well-known first-order k-C* models, Monod-type equations and more complex dynamic, compartmental models. Especially highlighted in this review are the model constraints and parameter uncertainty. A case study has been used to demonstrate the model output variability and to unravel whether or not more complex but also less manageable models offer a significant advantage to the designer.     

Removal of organics in constructed wetlands with horizontal sub-surface flow: a review of the field experience

Constructed wetlands with horizontal sub-surface flow (HF CWs) have successfully been used for treatment various types of wastewater for more than four decades. Most systems have been designed to treat municipal sewage but the use for wastewaters from agriculture, industry and landfill leachate in HF CWs is getting more attention nowadays. The paper summarizes the results from more than 400 HF CWs from 36 countries around the world. The survey revealed that the highest removal efficiencies for BOD₅ and COD were achieved in systems treating municipal wastewater while the lowest efficiency was recorded for landfill leachate. The survey also revealed that HF CWs are successfully used for both secondary and tertiary treatment. The highest average inflow concentrations of BOD₅ (652 mg l^− 1) and COD (1865 mg l^− 1) were recorded for industrial wastewaters followed by wastewaters from agriculture for BOD₅ (464 mg l^− 1) and landfill leachate for COD (933 mg l^− 1). Hydraulic loading data reveal that the highest loaded systems are those treating wastewaters from agriculture and tertiary municipal wastewaters (average hydraulic loading rate 24.3 cm d^− 1). On the other hand, landfill leachate systems in the survey were loaded with average only 2.7 cm d^− 1. For both BOD₅ and COD, the highest average loadings were recorded for agricultural wastewaters (541 and 1239 kg ha^− 1 d^− 1, respectively) followed by industrial wastewaters (365 and 1212 kg ha^− 1 d^− 1, respectively). The regression equations for BOD₅ and COD inflow/outflow concentrations yielded very loose relationships. Much stronger relationships were found for inflow/outflow loadings and especially for COD. The influence of vegetation on removal of organics in HF CWs is not unanimously agreed but most studies indicated the positive effect of macrophytes.     

Indicators of biofilm development and activity in constructed wetlands microcosms

Methods to measure protein, exopolysaccharide, viable cell number and INT reduction activity were tested on biofilm growing in a wastewater batch reactor. They were shown to be meaningful indicators of biofilm growth and correlated well with each other. Protein, exopolysaccharide, viable cells and INT reduction rates increased linearly over time. Viable cell number exhibited strong linear correlations with protein (R2= 0.98) and exopolysaccharide (R2= 0.99) while INT reduction rate was somewhat less well correlated (R2= 0.90). Our results indicate production rates of 0.91 x 10(-7) microg EPS per viable cell and 1.0 x 10(-7) microg protein per viable cell. Protein and polysaccharide specific INT reduction rates decreased by approximately 50%, whereas viable cell specific INT reduction rates decreased by 65% and the protein to polysaccharide ratio stayed relatively constant at between 1.1 and 1.2 as the biofilm developed. Measurement of protein, polysaccharide, viable cells and INT reduction rate at depth within the bioreactor showed that they were concentrated in the top 1cm of the influent end of the reactor and each decreased to a base level within 4.5 cm of the inlet. Protein to polysaccharide ratios increased with depth in the reactor and the specific INT reduction rates were maximal at 4.5 cm depth. The results indicate that the biomass can take upwards of 100 days to stabilize during batch (fill and draw) operation of subsurface wetlands and that the relative ratios of biomass components remain relatively constant during biofilm growth. Also, it appears that filtration of suspended solids results in biomass concentration at the inlet to the wetland.     

Comprehensive assessment of the design configuration of constructed wetlands for the removal of pharmaceuticals and personal care products from urban wastewaters

Seven mesocosm-scale constructed wetlands (CWs) of different configurations were operated outdoors for nine months to assess their ability to remove pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) from urban wastewaters. CWs differed in some design parameters, namely the presence of plants, the species chosen (i.e., Typha angustifolia vs Phragmites australis), flow configuration (i.e., surface flow vs subsurface flow) and the presence of a gravel bed. A nearby conventional activated-sludge wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) fed with the same sewage was simultaneously monitored for comparison. The PPCPs ketoprofen, naproxen, ibuprofen, diclofenac, salicylic acid, carbamazepine, caffeine, galaxolide, tonalide and methyl dihydrojasmonate were monitored. The presence of plants favoured the removal of some PPCPs. The performance of the mesocosm studied was compound-dependant, soilless CWs showing the highest removal efficiency for ketoprofen, ibuprofen and carbamazepine, while free-water CWs with effluent leaving through the bottom of the tank performed well for the degradation of ketoprofen, salicylic acid, galaxolide and tonalide. Finally, subsurface horizontal flow CWs were efficient for the removal of caffeine. Significant linear correlations were observed between the removal of some PPCPs and temperature or redox potential. Hence, microbiological pathways appear to be the most probable degradation route for PPCPs in the CWs studied.     

Application of the self-organizing map (SOM) to assess the heavy metal removal performance in experimental constructed wetlands

The self-organizing map (SOM) model was applied to elucidate heavy metal removal mechanisms and to predict heavy metal concentrations in experimental constructed wetlands treating urban runoff. A newly developed SOM map showed that nickel in constructed wetland filters is likely to leach under high conductivity in combination with low pH in winter. In contrast, influent pH and conductivity were not shown to have clear relationships with copper (Cu) concentrations in the effluent, suggesting that the mobility of Cu was not considerably affected by salt increase during winter. The accuracy of prediction with SOM was highly satisfactory, suggesting heavy metals can be efficiently estimated by applying the SOM model with input variables such as conductivity, pH, temperature and redox potential, which can be monitored in real time. Moreover, domain understanding was not required to implement the SOM model for prediction of heavy metal removal efficiencies.     

Effect of plants and filter materials on bacteria removal in pilot-scale constructed wetlands

Due to the lack of testing units or appropriate experimental approaches, only little is known about the removal of bacteria in constructed wetlands. However, improved performance in terms of water sanitation requires a detailed understanding of the ongoing processes. Therefore, we analyzed the microbial diversity and the survival of Enterobacteriaceae in six pilot-scale constructed wetland systems treating domestic wastewater: two vertical sand filters, two vertical expanded clay filters and two horizontal sand filters (each planted and unplanted). Samples were taken from the in- and outflow, from the rhizosphere, and from the bulk soil at various depths. Colony-forming units of heterotrophic bacteria and coliforms were analyzed and the removal of bacteria between the in- and outflow was determined to within 1.5-2.5 orders of magnitude. To access the taxon-specific biodiversity of potential pathogens in the filters and to reduce the complexity of the analysis, specific primers for Enterobacteriaceae were developed. While performing PCR-SSCP analyses, a pronounced decrease in diversity from the inflow to the outflow of treated wastewater was observed. No differences were observed between the bulk soil of planted and unplanted vertical filters. Some bands appeared in the rhizosphere that were not present in the bulk soil, indicating the development of specific communities stimulated by the plants. The fingerprinting of the rhizosphere of plants grown on sand or expanded clay exhibited many differences, which show that different microbial communities exist depending on the soil type of the filters. The use of the taxon-specific primers enabled us to evaluate the fate of the Enterobacteriaceae entering the wetlands and to localize harboring in the rhizosphere. The most abundant bands of the profiles were sequenced: Pantoea agglomerans was found in nearly all samples from the soil but not in the effluent, whereas Citrobacter sp. could not be removed by the horizontal unplanted sand and vertical planted expanded clay filters. These results show that the community in wetland system is strongly influenced by the filtration process, the filter material and the plants.     

Effects of blending of desalinated water with treated surface drinking water on copper and lead release

This study examined effects of desalinated water on the corrosion of and metal release from copper and lead-containing materials. A jar test protocol was employed to examine metal release from copper and lead-tin coupons exposed to water chemistries with varying blending ratios of desalinated water, alkalinities, pHs and orthophosphate levels. Increasing fractions of desalinated water in the blends resulted in non-monotonic changes of copper and lead release, with generally lower metal concentrations in the presence of desalinated water, especially when its contribution increased from 80% to 100%. SEM examination showed that the increased fractions of desalinated water were associated with pronounced changes of the morphology of the corrosion scales, likely due to the influence of natural organic matter. This hypothesis was corroborated by the existence of correlations between changes of the ζ-potential of representative minerals (malachite and hydrocerussite) and metal release. For practical applications, maintaining pH at 7.8 and adding 1 mg/L orthophosphate as PO₄ were concluded to be adequate to decrease copper and lead release. Lower alkalinity of desalinated water was beneficial for blends containing 50% or more desalinated water.     

Impact of design and operation variables on the performance of vertical-flow constructed wetlands and intermittent sand filters treating pond effluent

With the aim of improving the quality of the effluent from a waste stabilization pond (WSP) different types of vertical-flow constructed wetlands (VFCWs) and intermittent sand filters (ISFs) were tested at a pilot plant in Aurignac (France). The effectiveness of each design at upgrading the pond effluent was studied over a period of 2 years. Physicochemical parameters were monitored by taking composite samples over 24 h and grab samples every week. The hydraulic behaviour of the filters was studied using (NaCl) tracer tests and monitoring the infiltration rate. This paper describes the influence on the performance of the beds of: (a) the characteristics of the medium (type of sand, depth, and presence of Phragmites); (b) feed modes; and (c) the presence of an algae clogging layer. The study demonstrates the viability of VFCWs and ISFs as means of upgrading effluent from WSPs. For hydraulic loads (HL) of up to 80 cm/day, both technologies effectively retain algae, complete organic matter degradation, and nitrify the pond effluent. The presence of plants did not significantly affect the performance of the filters although it was important in terms of maintenance. The deeper filters presented better removals for all the parameter tested, due to higher hydraulic detention times (HDTs). The dosing regime and resting period duration all affected the hydraulic performance and purification efficiency of the filters.     

人工湿地在湖水净化和中水回用中的应用

介绍了高效垂直流人工湿地处理系统在公园湖水水质净化和小区生活污水处理及回用中的应用,综合分析了系统运行后对污染物的去除效果.结果表明,人工湿地技术对富营养化水体的处理效果较好,其中对BOD5和TN的去除率高于55%,TP去除率为80%～90%,叶绿素a去除率高于63%,湿地出水水质达到了国家地表水标准中Ⅲ～Ⅳ类水体水质.该系统用于小区生活污水处理及回用时,运行稳定,出水水质可以满足绿化用水水质要求,且达到了良好的景观效果,具有良好的经济效益和应用前景.     

Performance comparison of constructed wetlands with gravel- and rice husk-based media for phenol and nitrogen removal

This study aims to compare the performance of planted and unplanted constructed wetlands with gravel- and raw rice husk-based media for phenol and nitrogen removal. Four laboratory-scale horizontal subsurface-flow constructed wetland units, two of which planted with cattail (Typha latifolia) were operated outdoors. The units were operated at a nominal hydraulic retention time of 7 days and fed with domestic wastewater spiked with phenol concentration at 300 mg/L for 74 days and then at 500 mg/L for 198 days. The results show that planted wetland units performed better than the unplanted ones in the removal and mineralization of phenol. This was explained by the creation of more micro-aerobic zones in the root zone of the wetland plants which allow a faster rate of phenol biodegradation, and the phenol uptake by plants. The better performance of the rice husk-based planted wetland compared to that of the gravel-based planted wetland in phenol removal could be explained by the observation that more rhizomes were established in the rice husk-based wetland unit thus creating more micro-aerobic zones for phenol degradation. The role of rice husk as an adsorbent in phenol removal was considered not of importance.     

Hydraulics and flow modelling of water treatment wetlands constructed on peatlands in Northern Finland

In this study, we evaluated flow structure, effective flow area (A(eff)) and effective porosity (theta(eff)) in three peatlands using the stable isotope (18)O/(16)O ratio and tracer tests. We also applied the readily available groundwater modelling MODFLOW code for wetland flow modelling and simulated in one study site how the hydraulic performance of the wetland will be improved by changing the design of the distribution ditch. Preferential flow paths occurred in all three studied wetlands and A(eff) varied from 40% to 90% of total wetland area while theta(eff) was 0.75-0.99. Constructed flow models accurately simulated the hydraulic head across wetlands (r(2)=0.95-0.99). Similarities between the flow models and the stable isotope distributions observed in this study suggest possibilities in using MODFLOW to design peatlands. The improvement of the inlet ditch configuration (ditch length/wetland width>0.45) can prevent or reduce short-circuiting and dead zones in peatlands treating wastewater.     

A comparative study of Cyperus papyrus and Miscanthidium violaceum-based constructed wetlands for wastewater treatment in a tropical climate

The treatment efficiencies of constructed wetlands containing Cyperus papyrus L. (papyrus) and Miscanthidium violaceum (K. Schum.) Robyns (synonymous with Miscanthus violaceum (K. Schum) Pilg.) were investigated in a tropical climate (Kampala, Uganda). Papyrus showed higher ammonium-nitrogen and total reactive phosphorus (TRP) removal (75.3% and 83.2%) than Miscanthidium (61.5% and 48.4%) and unplanted controls (27.9% ammonium-nitrogen). No TRP removal was detected in control effluent. Nutrients (N and P) were significantly higher (p<0.015) in papyrus than Miscanthidium plant tissues. Plant uptake and storage was the major factor responsible for N and P removal in treatment line 2 (papyrus) where it contributed 69.5% N and 88.8% P of the total N and P removed. It however accounted for only 15.8% N and 30.7% P of the total N and P removed by treatment line 3 (Miscanthidium violaceum). In addition, papyrus exhibited a significantly larger (p=0.000) number of adventitious roots than Miscanthidium. Nitrifying bacteria attached to papyrus (2.15 x 10(6)+/-1.53 x 10(5) MPN/g DW) and Miscanthidium roots (1.30 x 10(4)+/-8.83 x 10(2) MPN/g DW) and the corresponding nitrification activities were consistent with this finding. Epiphytic nitrifiers appeared more important for total nitrification than those in peat or suspended in water. Papyrus root structures provided more microbial attachment sites, sufficient wastewater residence time, trapping and settlement of suspended particles, surface area for pollutant adsorption, uptake, assimilation in plant tissues and oxygen for organic and inorganic matter oxidation in the rhizosphere, accounting for its high treatment efficiency.     

Removal of zinc, copper and lead by natural zeolite-a comparison of adsorption isotherms

An uptake of zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), and lead (Pb) from aqueous solutions by ion exchange on natural zeolitic tuff has been studied. The Croatian zeolite clinoptilolite from the Donje Jesenje deposit has been used as a natural ion exchanger. The efficiency of removal is higher for Pb and Cu than for Zn ions. Measured concentrations of Si in the liquid phase identify the detachment of the aluminosilicate structure during ion exchange in the presence of H(+) and OH(-) ions. The adsorption isotherm equations; Langmuir-Freundlich, Redlich-Petersen, Toth, Dubinin-Radushkevich, modified Dubinin-Radushkevich, and Lineweawer-Burk were derived from the basic empirical equations, and used for calculation of ion exchange parameters. The best fitting of experimental results to the proposed isotherms was observed in models that assume that ionic species bind first at energetically most favorable sites, with multi-layer adsorption taking place subsequently.     

Life cycle assessment of vertical and horizontal flow constructed wetlands for wastewater treatment considering nitrogen and carbon greenhouse gas emissions

Life cycle assessment (LCA) is used to compare the environmental impacts of vertical flow constructed wetlands (VFCW) and horizontal flow constructed wetlands (HFCW). The LCAs include greenhouse gas (N₂O, CO₂ and CH₄) emissions. Baseline constructed wetland designs are compared to different treatment performance scenarios and to conventional wastewater treatment at the materials acquisition, assembly and operation life stages. The LCAs suggest that constructed wetlands have less environmental impact, in terms of resource consumption and greenhouse gas emissions. The VFCW is a less impactful configuration for removing total nitrogen from domestic wastewater. Both wetland designs have negligible impacts on respiratory organics, radiation and ozone. Gaseous emissions, often not included in wastewater LCAs because of lack of data or lack of agreement on impacts, have the largest impact on climate change. Nitrous oxide accounts for the increase in impact on respiratory inorganic, and the combined acidification/eutrophication category. The LCAs were used to assess the importance of nitrogen removal and recycling, and the potential for optimizing nitrogen removal in constructed wetlands.     

Mobilization of adsorbed copper and lead from naturally aged soil by bacterial extracellular polymers

Sorption of pollutants is a dominant phase transfer process affecting the fate and transport of metals through the subsurface. The movement of contaminants is retarded by sorption to the stationary subsurface porous media and can seriously hinder remediation efforts. Research has shown that the binding of adsorbed metals becomes more pronounced the longer the contaminant is in the subsurface and the release rates of aged metal contaminants have not received the research attention given to freshly added metals in laboratory studies. Metal release rates are also influenced by the presence of dissolved ligands that compete with mineral soil surfaces by providing binding sites. Dissolved organic matter such as bacterial extracellular polymers are common in natural soil solutions and the metal binding properties of bacterial polymers are well established. Therefore, binding of metals to dissolved biopolymers may result in mobilization of an adsorbed metal. This is important for cases where the metals are assumed to be relatively immobile such as in the case of land applied biosolids. In addition, naturally occurring adherent bacteria commonly produce extracellular polymers and thus may modify the bioavailability of meal contaminants at the point of their attachment. In this study samples from three sites, one a land applied sludge test site, were used to investigate the ability of bacterial extracellular polymers to release metals from soils with long-term exposures. The presence of ?200mg/L bacterial extracellular polymer was found to increase the short-term (less than 350h) release of Cu and Pb by a factor of 2-4-fold.     

Pilot-scale comparison of constructed wetlands operated under high hydraulic loading rates and attached biofilm reactors for domestic wastewater treatment

Four different pilot-scale treatment units were constructed to compare the feasibility of treating domestic wastewater in the City of Heraklio, Crete, Greece: (a) a free water surface (FWS) wetland system, (b) a horizontal subsurface flow (HSF) wetland system, (c) a rotating biological contactor (RBC), and (d) a packed bed filter (PBF). All units operated in parallel at various hydraulic loading rates (HLR) ranging from 50% to 175% of designed operating HLR. The study was conducted during an 8 month period and showed that COD removal efficiency of HSF was comparable (> 75%) to that of RBC and PBF, whereas that of the FWS system was only 57%. Average nutrient removal efficiencies for FWS, HSF, RBC and PBF were 6%, 21%, 40% and 43%, respectively for total nitrogen and 21%, 39%, 41% and 42%, respectively for total phosphorus. Removals of total coliforms were lowest in FWS and PBF (1.3 log units) and higher in HSF and RBC (2.3 to 2.6 log units). HSF showed slightly lower but comparable effluent quality to that of RBC and PBF systems, but the construction cost and energy requirements for this system are significantly lower. Overall the final decision for the best non-conventional wastewater treatment system depends on the construction and operation cost, the area demand and the required quality of effluent.     

The role of free water surface constructed wetlands as polishing step in municipal wastewater reclamation and reuse

In Europe, the last two decades witnessed growing water stress, both in terms of water scarcity and quality deterioration, which prompted many municipalities for a more efficient use of the water resources, including a more widespread acceptance of water reuse practices. Treatment technology encompasses a vast variety of options. Constructed wetlands are regarded as key elements in polishing conventionally treated wastewater for recreational and environmental applications. A survey was conducted to assess the performance of tertiary free water surface constructed wetlands in treating both key and emerging contaminant categories in the perspective of water reuse. A database was created with information concerning systems with emerging and free-floating macrophytes. The database includes results from both full- and pilot-scale systems, and considers a broad variety of operating conditions. This paper provides an overview of the treatment performances of the constructed wetlands in the database and discusses their significance in the optic of water reclamation and reuse practices.     

Removal and accumulation of Cu, Ni and Zn in horizontal subsurface flow constructed wetlands: Contribution of vegetation and filling medium

This study investigated the accumulation and removal of Cu, Ni and Zn in two horizontal subsurface flow constructed wetlands for domestic wastewater treatment, which differ by shape, presence of macrophytes and water depth. Between March and December 2007, the three metals were measured in the influent and effluents of the two systems. Average percentage removal rates were extremely low for Cu (3% and 9% in the two beds) and higher for Zn and Ni (between 25 and 35%). Under higher Zn influent concentrations, it was found to be between 78-87%, which is in agreement with other literature data.During the peak standing crop season (August), biomasses of the different parts of Phragmites australis (stems, leaves and flowers, roots and rhizomes) were analysed in terms of weight and heavy metal concentration in order to assess heavy metal distribution among the tissues. It was found that the plants contribute to total heavy metal removal to a lesser extent than the filling medium. Aboveground tissues remove 34% of Cu, 1.8% of Ni and 6.2% of Zn % and, once harvested, their disposal does not appear to pose a problem for the environment. If heavy metals are present at high concentrations in the horizontal subsurface flow bed influent, over time, their accumulation in the filling medium could necessitate special care in the bed's management to avoid release into the surrounding environment.     

The effect of primary treatment and flow regime on clogging development in horizontal subsurface flow constructed wetlands: An experimental evaluation

The effect of both the type of primary treatment (hydrolitic up-flow sludge blanket (HUSB) reactor and conventional settling) and the flow regime (batch and continuous) on clogging development in subsurface flow constructed wetlands (SSF CWs) was studied. Clogging indicators (such as accumulated solids, hydraulic conductivity and drainable porosity) were determined in an experimental plant with three treatment lines. Correlations were encountered between the solids accumulated and both saturated hydraulic conductivity and drainable porosity reduction over time (74.5% and 89.2% of correlation, respectively). SSF CW implemented with a HUSB reactor accumulated ca. 30% lower sludge (1.9 kg DM/m²) than a system with a settler (2.5-2.8 kg DM/m²). However, no significant differences were recorded among treatment lines concerning hydraulic parameters (such as hydraulic conductivity or porosity). Root system development contributed to clogging. Accordingly, planted wetlands showed between 30% and 40% and 10% lower hydraulic conductivity and porosity reduction, respectively, than non-planted wetlands.