Measurement of laminar burning velocity and Markstein length relative to fresh gases using a new postprocessing procedure: Application to laminar spherical flames for methane,ethanol and isooctane/air mixtures

The purpose of this study is to present a new tool for extracting the laminar burning velocity in the case of spherically outward expanding flames. This new procedure makes it possible to determine the laminar burning velocity directly based on the flame displacement speed and the global fresh gas velocity near the preheat zone of the flame front. It therefore presents a very interesting alternative to the standard method (commonly used in the literature), which is based on the flame front displacement and the ratio of unburned and burned gas densities. The influence of external flame stretching on the burning velocity can be characterized and the Markstein length relative to the unburned gases (i.e., fresh gases) can be deduced by using this new tool. Contrary to the standard procedure, the unstretched laminar burning velocity is determined directly without using the fuel mixture properties. The temporal evolution of the flame front is visualized by high-speed laser tomography and the algorithm, based on a tomographic image correlation method, makes it possible to accurately measure the fresh gas velocity near the preheat zone of the flame front. The measurements of laminar flame speeds are carried out in a high-pressure and high-temperature constant-volume vessel over a wide range of equivalence ratios for methane, ethanol, and isooctane/air mixtures. To validate the experimental facility and the postprocessing of the flame images, fresh gas velocities and unstretched laminar burning velocities, as well as Markstein lengths relative to burned and unburned gases, are presented and compared with experimental and numerical results of the literature for methane/air flames. New results concerning ethanol/air and isooctane/air flames are presented for various experimental conditions (373 K, equivalence ratios range 0.7–1.5, pressure range 0.1–5 MPa).     

A computational study and correlation of premixed isooctane–air laminar reaction front properties under spark ignited and spark assisted compression ignition engine conditions

To address the need for reliable premixed laminar burning velocity and thickness information within the spark assisted compression ignition (SACI) combustion regime, a large dataset of simulated reaction fronts has been generated in this work. A transient one dimensional premixed laminar flame simulation was applied to isooctane–air mixtures using a 215 species chemical kinetic mechanism. The simulation was exercised over fuel–air equivalence ratios, unburned gas temperatures and pressures ranging from 0.1 to 1.0, 298 to 1000 K and 1 to 250 bar, respectively, a range that extends beyond that of previous researchers. Steady reaction fronts with burning velocities in excess of 5 cm/s could not be established under all of these conditions, especially when burned gas temperatures were below 1500 K and/or when characteristic reaction front times were on the order of the unburned gas ignition delay. Steady premixed laminar burning velocities were correlated using a modified two-equation form based upon the asymptotic structure of a laminar flame, which produced an average error of 2.5% between the simulated and correlated laminar burning velocities, with a standard deviation of 3.0%. Additional correlations were constructed for reaction front thickness and adiabatic flame temperature. The resulting premixed laminar burning velocity correlation showed good agreement with experiments and existing correlations within the spark-ignited (SI) regime. Analysis of the simulated characteristic reaction front times and ignition delays suggests that homogeneous SACI combustion is most useful under medium and high load operating conditions.     

Flame dynamics in thin semi-closed tubes at different heat loss conditions

The results of detailed 2D numerical simulation of non-steady methane–air flame propagation in semi-closed tubes after ignition near the closed end are presented. Flame dynamics dependence on the tubes width for adiabatic and non-adiabatic walls is obtained. It is shown that main mechanism of front acceleration is flame surface perturbation due to hydrodynamic drag near the walls, which grows due to gas thermal expansion and flow acceleration. The mechanism of vortex formation in vicinity of the front bow point is demonstrated. The vortex is generated at the flame front velocities of the order of S_l ∼ 20 m/s and may become precursor for flow turbulization at later instants.The new theoretically possible regime of gas combustion in adiabatic conditions in narrow capillary is found. It is characterized by relatively low propagation velocity and incomplete combustion.     

Structure of laminar premixed flames of methane near the auto-ignition limit

Auto-ignition and flame propagation are the two different controlling mechanisms for stabilizing the flame in secondary stage combustion in hot vitiated air environment and at elevated pressure. The present work aims at the investigation of the flame stabilization mechanism of flames developing in such an environment. In order to better understand the structure of turbulent flames at inlet temperature well above the auto-ignition temperature, the behavior of laminar flames at those conditions needs to be analyzed. As an alternative to challenging and expensive measurements at high temperature and pressure, the behavior of laminar flames at such conditions can be predicted from theory using mathematical simulation. In the present work, the laminar burning velocities and flame structures of premixed stoichiometric methane/air mixtures for inlet temperatures from 300 to 1450 K and absolute pressures from 1 to 8 bar have been calculated using a freely propagating laminar, one dimensional, planar flame model. The prediction shows that at inlet temperatures below the auto-ignition temperature, the predicted laminar burning velocity which corresponds to the unburned mixture velocity in order to create a steady laminar flame decreases with increase in pressure. When the inlet temperature of the mixture goes well beyond the auto-ignition temperature of the mixture, however, the unburned mixture velocity increases steeply at higher pressure level, because of a complete transition of the flame structure.     

Influence of fuel fraction gradient on triple flame velocity in plain and axis-symmetrical channels

Dynamics of laminar triple flame investigated numerically for the different mixture degrees. One-step methane–air chemistry adequate to reach and lean mixture combustion was accepted. Velocity of triple flame is determined as a function of methane concentration logarithm gradients μ = d(ln Y₁)/dx (characterizing mixing degree). It is found that maximum velocity of the triple flames correspond to the value of the methane concentration logarithm gradients μ ≈ 1000 m^?1 for plain and μ ≈ 2000 m^?1 for axis-symmetrical channels. The maximum velocity of triple flame in plain and axis-symmetrical channels in the case of non-gradient incoming gas flow is about twice bigger than normal laminar flame velocity S_f ≈ 2.1S_l.     

Derivation of burning velocities of premixed hydrogen/air flames at engine-relevant conditions using a single-cylinder compression machine with optical access

With respect to hydrogen internal combustion engines beside turbulence also flame front instabilities of high-pressure combustion provoke an acceleration of the flame. To account for this effect within engine simulations, it is suggested to include the impact of flame front instabilities directly into a “quasi-laminar” burning velocity that is an input for turbulent combustion models. Premixed hydrogen/air flames are investigated in a single-cylinder compression machine using OH-chemiluminescence and in-cylinder pressure analysis. Values of burning velocities are calculated from flame front velocities considering thermal expansion effects. A flame speed correlation is derived which covers temperatures and pressures of the unburned mixture, relevant for internal combustion engines, ranging from 350 K to 700 K and 5 bar to 45 bar. Values of air/fuel equivalence ratio cover lean and rich regimes between 0.4 ≤ λ ≤ 2.8. For an evaluation of stretch and instability effects a comparison to fundamental laminar burning velocities of a one-dimensional flame computed with a detailed chemical kinetic-mechanism is given. At high-pressure conditions flame speed measurements demonstrate that flame front instabilities have an accelerating effect on the value of laminar burning velocities, which cannot be reproduced by computations with a chemical model. A linear stability analysis is applied in order to estimate the magnitude of instabilities. The proposed “quasi-laminar” burning velocity does not account for interaction between turbulence and instability effects. Consequently, at increasing turbulence levels partially counter-balancing of instabilities by turbulence is not followed which may allegorize a possible limitation of the suggested approach.     

Effects of dilution with carbon dioxide on the laminar burning velocity and flame stability of H2–CO mixtures at atmospheric condition

The objective of this investigation was to study the effect of dilution with CO₂ on the laminar burning velocity and flame stability of syngas fuel (50% H₂–50% CO by volume). Constant pressure spherically expanding flames generated in a 40 l chamber were used for determining unstretched burning velocity. Experimental and numerical studies were carried out at 0.1 MPa, 302 ± 3 K and ? = 0.6–3.0 using fuel-diluent and mixture-diluent approaches. For H₂–CO–CO₂–O₂–N₂ mixtures, the peak burning velocity shifts from ? = 2.0 for 0% CO₂ in fuel to ? = 1.6 for 30% CO₂ in fuel. For H₂–CO–O₂–CO₂ mixtures, the peak burning velocity occurred at ? = 1.0 unaffected by proportion of CO₂ in the mixture. If the mole fraction of combustibles in H₂–CO–O₂–CO₂ mixtures is less than 32%, then such mixtures are supporting unstable flames with respect to preferential diffusion. The analysis of measured unstretched laminar burning velocities of H₂–CO–O₂–CO₂ and H₂–CO–O₂–N₂ mixtures suggested that CO₂ has a stronger inhibiting effect on the laminar burning velocity than nitrogen. The enhanced dilution effect of CO₂ could be due to the active participation of CO₂ in the chemical reactions through the following intermediate reaction CO + OH ? CO₂ + H.     

Measurement of OH concentration profiles by laser diagnostics and modeling in high-pressure counterflow premixed methane/air and biogas/air flames

Detailed kinetic mechanisms validated under atmospheric or low-pressure flame conditions cannot generally be directly extrapolated toward high pressure, due to the lack of experimental data or to uncertainties concerning the rate constants of elementary reactions. It is thus necessary to complete the experimental database and to extend the validation domain of combustion mechanisms at high pressure. In this work, OH concentration profiles were measured in high-pressure methane/air and biogas/air laminar premixed counterflow flames by linear laser-induced fluorescence at different equivalence ratios (0.7–1.2) and pressures (0.1–0.7 MPa). Each flame was calibrated in absolute OH concentration by a combination of laser absorption and planar laser-induced fluorescence measurements. Experimental results were compared with simulations using the OPPDIF code and three detailed kinetic mechanisms: two versions of the Gas Research Institute Mechanism, GRI-Mech 2.11 and GRI-Mech 3.0, and the recently updated GDFkin®3.0_NCN mechanisms. Results show that the flame front positions are very well predicted by modeling with the three mechanisms for lean and stoichiometric CH₄/air flames and stoichiometric CH₄/CO₂/air flames. However, discrepancies appear at a higher equivalence ratio (Φ = 1.2) for the CH₄/air flames and at a lower equivalence ratio (Φ = 0.7) for the CH₄/CO₂/air flames. OH mole fractions are quantitatively well predicted at high pressure in all cases, while systematic overestimation by modeling is observed at atmospheric pressure. A kinetic analysis of the results is also presented.     

Effects of high pressure,high temperature and dilution on laminar burning velocities and Markstein lengths of iso-octane/air mixtures

Spherically expanding flames are employed to measure flame velocities, from which are derived the corresponding laminar burning velocities at zero stretch rate. Iso-octane/air mixtures at initial temperatures between 323 and 473 K, and pressures between 1 and 10 bar, are studied over an extensive range of equivalence ratios, using a high-speed shadowgraph system. Effects of dilution are investigated with nitrogen and for several dilution percentages (from 5 to 25 vol% N₂). Over 270 experimental values have been obtained, providing an exhaustive data base for iso-octane/air combustion. Experimental results are in excellent agreement with recently published experimental data. An explicit correlation giving the laminar burning velocity from the initial pressure, the initial temperature, the dilution rate, and the equivalence ratio is finally proposed. Computed results using the two kinetic schemes and the Cantera code are compared to the present measurements. It is found that the mechanisms yield substantially higher values of laminar flame velocities than the present experimental results. Effects of oxygen enrichment are also investigated. A linear trend relating the percentage of oxygen in air and the unstretched laminar burning velocity is observed. Effects of high pressure, high temperature, and high dilution rate on Markstein lengths are also studied. As already done for the laminar burning velocity, an empirical correlation is proposed to describe the Markstein length for burned gases as a function of initial temperature and pressure, for equivalence ratios between 0.9 and 1.1, which has never been done before in the literature.     

The turbulent burning velocity of iso-octane/air mixtures

Turbulent burning velocities of iso-octane air mixtures have been measured for expanding flame kernels within a turbulent combustion bomb. High speed schlieren images were used to derive turbulent burning velocity. Turbulent velocity measurements were made at u′ = 0.5, 1.0, 2.0, 4.0, 6.0 m/s, equivalence ratios of 0.8, 1.0, 1.2, 1.4 and pressures of P = 0.1, 0.5, 1.0 MPa. The turbulent burning velocity was found to increase with time and radius from ignition, this was attributed to turbulent flame development. The turbulent burning velocity increased with increasing rms turbulent velocity, and with pressure; although differences were found in the magnitude of this increase for different turbulent velocities. Generally, raising the equivalence ratio resulted in enhanced turbulent burning velocity, excepting measurements made at the lowest turbulent velocity. The results obtained in this study have been compared with those evaluated for a number turbulent burning velocity correlations and the differences are discussed.     

Streamwise interaction of burning drops

The spatial distribution of drops and their interactions are influential parameters in spray combustion. Most available researches on this subject were about lateral spacing or were performed in micro-gravity. Studies about upstream/downstream convective interaction of burning drops are scarce. In this study, drop strings of different spacing were investigated in a high-temperature oxidizing environment for their flame transition, flame width variation and drop evaporation rate. The flame transition showed that along the flow direction, the drop flame initially located ahead of the drop, became a spherical envelope flame, then moved behind the drop, and finally burned as a wake flame. It was found that a drop string with an initial drop spacing (S_i) of 2.5 or 5 was surrounded by a bulk flame tube, exhibited local group burning and soot layer. In addition, for S_i = 2.5, spacing instability and collision merging of the burning drops occurred; the wake flame stretched away from the drop could attach to and stabilize on the rear drop. In the experiment, for all cases, most of drops in the string were not surrounded by the flame. For S_i < 30, the drop evaporation rate was lower than that of a single drop. For 30 < S_i < 75, the drop evaporation rate was higher than that of a single drop. The interaction of drops diminished if S_i was more than 75.     

Laminar burning speed measurement of premixed n-decane/air mixtures using spherically expanding flames at high temperatures and pressures

Normal-decane (n-C₁₀H₂₂) is regarded as a major component of possible surrogates for jet fuels and diesel fuels. The structure of spherically expanding premixed n-decane/air flames has been studied at high temperatures and pressures. The laminar burning speeds of n-decane/air mixtures have been measured for the temperatures of 350–610 K and pressures of 0.5–8 atm. The experiments were performed in lean conditions (0.7 ? ? ? 1). Laminar burning speed was measured using a thermodynamic model based on the pressure rise during the flame propagation in constant volume vessels. A cylindrical vessel equipped with a high speed CMOS camera was employed to investigate the flame structure and a spherical vessel was used for the burning speed measurements. The results are in good agreement with other experimental data available in the published literature.     

Negative pressure dependence of mass burning rates of H2/CO/O2/diluent flames at low flame temperatures

Experimental measurements of burning rates, analysis of the key reactions and kinetic pathways, and modeling studies were performed for H₂/CO/O₂/diluent flames spanning a wide range of conditions: equivalence ratios from 0.85 to 2.5, flame temperatures from 1500 to 1800 K, pressures from 1 to 25 atm, CO fuel fractions from 0 to 0.9, and dilution concentrations of He up to 0.8, Ar up to 0.6, and CO₂ up to 0.4. The experimental data show negative pressure dependence of burning rate at high pressure, low flame temperature conditions for all equivalence ratios and CO fractions as high as 0.5. Dilution with CO₂ was observed to strengthen the pressure and temperature dependence compared to Ar-diluted flames of the same flame temperature. Simulations were performed to extend the experimentally studied conditions to conditions typical of gas turbine combustion in Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle processes, including preheated mixtures and other diluents such as N₂ and H₂O.Substantial differences are observed between literature model predictions and the experimental data as well as among model predictions themselves – up to a factor of three at high pressures. The present findings suggest the need for several rate constant modifications of reactions in the current hydrogen models and raise questions about the sufficiency of the set of hydrogen reactions in most recent hydrogen models to predict high pressure flame conditions relevant to controlling NO_x emissions in gas turbine combustion. For example, the reaction O + OH + M = HO₂ + M is not included in most hydrogen models but is demonstrated here to significantly impact predictions of lean high pressure flames using rates within its uncertainty limits. Further studies are required to reduce uncertainties in third body collision efficiencies for and fall-off behavior of H + O₂(+M) = HO₂(+M) in both pure and mixed bath gases, in rate constants for HO₂ reactions with other radical species at higher temperatures, and in rate constants for reactions such as O + OH + M that become important under the present conditions in order to properly characterize the kinetics and predict global behavior of high-pressure H₂ or H₂/CO flames.     

Lean methane premixed laminar flames doped by components of diesel fuel II: n-Propylcyclohexane

For a better understanding of the chemistry involved during the combustion of components of diesel fuel, the structure of a laminar lean premixed methane flame doped with n-propylcyclohexane has been investigated. The inlet gases contained 7.1% (molar) methane, 36.8% oxygen, and 0.81% n-propylcyclohexane (C₉H₁₈), corresponding to an equivalence ratio of 0.68 and a C₉H₁₈/CH₄ ratio of 11.4%. The flame has been stabilized on a burner at a pressure of 6.7 kPa (50 Torr) using argon as diluent, with a gas velocity at the burner of 49.2 cm/s at 333 K. Quantified species included the usual methane C₀–C₂ combustion products, but also 17 C₃–C₅ hydrocarbons, seven C₁–C₃ oxygenated compounds, and only four cyclic C₆₊ compounds, namely benzene, 1,3-cyclohexadiene, cyclohexene, and methylenecyclohexane. A new mechanism for the oxidation of n-propylcyclohexane has been proposed. It allows the proper simulation of profiles of most of the products measured in flames, as well as the satisfactory reproduction of experimental results obtained in a jet-stirred reactor. The main reaction pathways of consumption of n-propylcyclohexane have been derived from rate-of-production analysis.     

Experimental investigation on the heat transfer of an impinging inverse diffusion flame

This paper presents the results of an experimental study on the heat transfer characteristics of an inverse diffusion flame (IDF) impinging vertically upwards on a horizontal copper plate. The IDF burner used in the experiment has a central air jet surrounded circumferentially by 12 outer fuel jets. The heat flux at the stagnation point and the radial distribution of heat flux were measured with a heat flux sensor. The effects of Reynolds number, overall equivalence ratio, and nozzle-to-plate distance on the heat flux were investigated. The area-averaged heat flux and the heat transfer efficiency were calculated from the radial heat flux within a radial distance of 50 mm from the stagnation point of the flame, for air jet Reynolds number (Re_air) of 2000, 2500 and 3000, for overall equivalence ratios (Φ) of 0.8–1.8, at normalized nozzle-to-plate distances (H/d_IDF) between 4 and 10. Similar experiments were carried out on a circular premixed impinging flame for comparison.It was found that, for the impinging IDF, for Φ of 1.2 or higher, the area-averaged heat flux increased as the Re_air or Φ was increased while the heat transfer efficiency decreased when these two parameters increased. Thus for the IDF, the maximum heat transfer efficiency occurred at Re_air = 2000 and Φ = 1.2. At lower Φ, the heat transfer efficiency could increase when Φ was decreased. For the range of H/d_IDF investigated, there was certain variation in the heat transfer efficiency with H/d_IDF. The heat transfer efficiency of the premixed flame has a peak value at Φ = 1.0 at H/d_P = 2 and decreases at higher Φ and higher H/d_P. The IDF could have comparable or even higher heat transfer efficiency than a premixed flame.     

Sintering and electrical properties of Ce0.8Y0.2O1.9 powders prepared by citric acid-nitrate low-temperature combustion process

Ce_0.8Y_0.2O_1.9 nanopowders were prepared using a citric acid-nitrate low-temperature combustion process. The effect of pH value of the solutions on the ionization of citric acid and the chelating of metal ions was studied. It was found that when the pH value of the solutions was bigger than 6, the citric acid was completely ionized and the stable complexes were formed between rare earth metal ions and the citric acid. Then the stable gels were obtained. The effect of the amount of oxidants (Φ) on the combustion fashions and combustion reaction time of the gels, the properties of the as-synthesized powders, the sintering behavior of the as-synthesized powders and the conductivity of the sintered pellets was also investigated. The results showed that the green density, sintered density and the ionic conductivity of the specimens increased with Φ. When Φ was equal to 1.5, the powders with good dispersion and compressibility were obtained, and the green density of the powders was 52.5%. The relative density of the sintered sample was over 95% at 1350 °C for 4 h and the conductivity of the sintered specimen was 0.034 S cm⁻¹ at 700 °C.     

Burning velocities of ethanol-isooctane blends

Laminar burning velocities of isooctane, ethanol, and isooctane-ethanol blends in air have been determined over a practical range of mixture strength at various initial mixture temperatures using a constant volume spherical bomb. Measurements were made during the constant pressure combustion period and a detailed density correction scheme was employed for calculation of burning velocities from the measured flame growth rates. A strong promotion of isooctane combustion by ethanol has been observed. Maximum burning rates were found to occur at an equivalence ratio of approximately 1.08, independently of unburned mixture temperature and fuel type. Mixture strength, unburned mixture temperature, and fuel type dependence of burning velocity is represented by empirical functions over the range of Φ = 0.75?1.4, T_u = 350?600K, and up to 20% ethanol (by liquid volume) in isooctane-ethanol blends.     

Parametric study of recuperative VOC oxidation reactor with porous media

Numerical study of volatile organic compounds (VOC) oxidation reactor consisting of two coaxial tubes, filled with inert porous media is performed. Influence of incoming gas flux, adiabatic temperature of gas combustion, reaction rate constant, diameter of porous body particles, reactor size and heat losses on maximal temperature of reactor, recuperation efficiency, combustion front position is investigated. It is shown that maximum temperature and recuperation efficiency of reactor has extremum in the field of incoming gas flow rate and porous body particle size parameters (for simulated configuration of reactor maximum corresponds to U_G ∼ 2 m/s and d₀ ∼ 6 mm). Numerical simulation shows non-monotonous character of maximal temperature and recuperation efficiency dependence from side heat losses of reactor. The obtained results can be used for construction optimization of practical VOC oxidation reactors.     

Experimental and kinetic modeling study of methyl butanoate and methyl butanoate/methanol flames at different equivalence ratios and C/O ratios

Premixed laminar methyl butanoate/oxygen/argon and methyl butanoate/methanol/oxygen/argon flames were studied with tunable synchrotron vacuum ultraviolet (VUV) photoionization and molecular-beam sampling mass spectrometry at 30 torr (4.0 kPa). Three flames were investigated in the experiment: MB (methyl butanoate) flame F1.54 (? = 1.54, C/O = 0.479), MB flame F1.67 (? = 1.67, C/O = 0.511) and MB/methanol flame F1.67M (? = 1.67, C/O = 0.479). By measuring the signal intensities at different distances from the burner surface, the mole fraction profiles of intermediates are derived. Experimental results show that the flame front shifts downstream and peak mole fractions of intermediates increase remarkably with the increase of equivalence ratio for pure MB fuel. When methanol is added, the peak mole fractions of most intermediates including those of soot precursors decrease remarkably at the same equivalence ratio, while peaks of soot precursors vary little (only slightly decreasing) at same C/O ratio. It is concluded that the formation of soot precursors is more sensitive to C/O ratio than to equivalence ratio. Besides, more CO₂ is produced near the burner surface in MB flame than that in MB/methanol flame, and this validates an early production of CO₂ in methyl ester oxidation. In addition, a modified MB detailed mechanism is used to model flame structure, and improved agreements between the experimental and predicted results are realized. Based on the simulation results, reaction flux and sensitivity are analyzed for CO₂ and C₃H₃, respectively.