The effect of cooking on Brassica vegetables

Assessing antioxidant intake requires a food antioxidant database. However, cooking may affect antioxidant content due to antioxidant release, destruction or creation of redox-active metabolites. Here, effects of boiling, steaming and microwaving of broccoli, cauliflower, cabbage and choy-sum (Chinese cabbage) were explored by measuring antioxidant contents of raw and cooked vegetables. Cooking water was also tested. For all cooked vegetables, antioxidant content was highest in steamed > boiled > microwaved, and decreased with longer cooking time, regardless of method. All steamed vegetables had higher antioxidant contents than had matching raw vegetables. Effects were variable for boiling and microwaving. Microwaving caused greater antioxidant loss into cooking water than did boiling. Marked losses of anitoxidants occurred in microwaved cabbage and spinach. To assess food antioxidant content/intake accurately, cooking effects need detailed study. Steaming may be the cooking method of choice to release/conserve antioxidants. The cooking water is a potentially rich source of dietary antioxidants.     

The relationship between lipid oxidation and antioxidant content in postharvest vegetables

Abstract

Lipid oxidation is the quality limiting attribute in many vegetables that generates off‐flavors. Lipoxygenases, which catalyze the oxygenation of polyunsaturated fatty acids are key enzymes in this pathway and their presence is believed to be the chief reason for the need for blanching (i.e., inactivation of enzymes) enabling frozen storage. Off‐flavor production in legumes, such as garden peas, is a particular problem, due to high levels of this enzyme found in these seeds.

The lipid oxidation pathway is triggered in response to tissue wounding which occurs during mechanical harvesting of peas in the field. Bruised peas that are not blanched develop strong off‐flavors within a few hours.

A number of studies has shown that antioxidants are consumed during lipid oxidation. Vitamin C (ascorbate) is an antioxidant and also an important micronutrient in peas. It is possible that the level of vitamin C is affected by the progress of lipid oxidation in postharvest peas.     

Second order derivative spectrophotometric method for determination of vitamin C content in fruits,vegetables and fruit juices

A second-order derivative UV spectrophotometric method for determination of vitamin C [ascorbic acid (AA)] content in a variety of natural samples is described. The method is based on the measurement of a peak–baseline amplitude in the second derivative of the AA spectrum at 267.5 nm. The following corresponding regression equation was obtained within the concentration range 2×10^-5 to 1×10^-4 M AA (3.5–17.6 g/cm³ AA) in 1.0 M HCl solution: ²D_267.5=2.420×10⁴ c+0.025; the correlation coefficient was 0.9993 and the detection limit 4.2×10^-6 M. The results obtained by analysing 21 different species of fruits, vegetables and juices indicated a possibility for a more extensive application of the proposed method. This method is rapid, simple and requires no pretreatment of the analysed material, which makes it suitable for routine analyses. The reliability of the method was confirmed by comparative determinations with the generally accepted 2,6-dichloroindophenol method.     

Diffusion and thermal degradation of ascorbic acid during canned fresh green peas sterilisation

Changes of ascorbic acid (AA) during canned fresh green peas sterilisation in a rotary retort were predicted. It was considered that AA is thermally degraded in green peas and simultaneously diffuses to brine, where it is also degraded; heat transfer, mass transfer and kinetics equations were simultaneously solved during heating and cooling of the sterilisation process. Kinetic parameters of AA thermal degradation in brine were experimentally determined, while all other parameters needed were taken from bibliography. Simplified assumptions were made to explore diffusion and thermal degradation mechanisms relevance. Experimental runs were performed at different retort temperatures, end-over-end rotation speeds and headspaces in a pilot plant rotary retort; experimental data obtained on concentrations of AA in green peas and in brine were used to evaluate predictions goodness. Deviations between experimental and predicted results were 8.44% for AA in green peas and 13.79% in brine.     

Total antioxidant activity in 35 Ugandan fruits and vegetables

The objective of this study was to analyse antioxidant activity (AA) in fruits and vegetables from Uganda and to investigate whether AA in traditional food is sufficiently high to prevent oxidative stress and thus combat disease. We used the FRAP (ferric reducing ability of plasma) procedure. The results showed great variation in AA, ranging from 72.3 ± 13.5 (Syzygium cuminii seed) to 0.09 ± 0.05 (Cucurbita maxima fruit) mmol/100 g fresh weight (FW). We estimated serving sizes and determined the total antioxidant capacity (TDAC) per day of three traditional Ugandan diets. The dietary plants with highest AA per serving size were pomegranate (Punica granatum), Canarium schweinfurthii, guava (Psidium guajava), mango (Mangifera indica) and tree tomato (Cyphomandra betacea) with values ranging from 8.91 to 3.00 mmol/serving. Of the traditional diets, the central/eastern (C/E) and the western (W) diets had almost the same AA (9.31–9.78 and 9.75 mmol/day), while the northern (N) diet had an AA of 7.50–8.02 mmol/day.     

Effects of high pressure processing on antioxidant activity, and total carotenoid content and availability, in vegetables

High pressure processing (HPP) is a relatively new food preservation processing technology that enhances food safety and shelf-life without compromising organoleptic qualities. There has been little research on the impact of HPP on the nutritional and health-promoting properties of foods to date and most of it has focused on juices and purees of fruit such as oranges and tomatoes. The objective of this study was to determine the effects of HPP treatment at two pressure levels (400 MPa; 600 MPa) on antioxidant activity, total carotenoid content and carotenoid availability in vitro, of three commonly consumed vegetables. Antioxidant capacity and total carotenoid content differed between vegetables but were unaffected by HPP treatment. In vitro availability of specific carotenoids also varied greatly between vegetables (3–35%). HPP altered availability of carotenoids according to the type of vegetable treated and processing pressure applied, however the magnitude of the responses was minor.

Industrial relevance

This study provides further scientific evidence of the benefits of high pressure processing in retaining the nutritional attributes of fresh foods. Antioxidant activity and levels of carotenoids before and after exposure to high pressures (up to 600 MPa for 2 min) were essentially no different. Also, the data suggest that micronutrients and phytochemicals in certain vegetables may be made more bioavailable by high pressure treatment. From a nutritional perspective, high pressure processing is an attractive food preservation technology and clearly offers opportunities for horticultural and food processing industries to meet the growing demand from consumers for healthier food products.     

Nutritional comparison of fresh,frozen and canned fruits and vegetables. Part 1. Vitamins C and B and phenolic compounds

The first of a two‐part review of the recent and classical literature reveals that loss of nutrients in fresh products during storage and cooking may be more substantial than commonly perceived. Depending on the commodity, freezing and canning processes may preserve nutrient value. The initial thermal treatment of processed products can cause loss of water‐soluble and oxygen‐labile nutrients such as vitamin C and the B vitamins. However, these nutrients are relatively stable during subsequent canned storage owing to the lack of oxygen. Frozen products lose fewer nutrients initially because of the short heating time in blanching, but they lose more nutrients during storage owing to oxidation. Phenolic compounds are also water‐soluble and oxygen‐labile, but changes during processing, storage and cooking appear to be highly variable by commodity. Further studies would facilitate the understanding of the changes in these phytochemicals. Changes in moisture content during storage, cooking and processing can misrepresent changes in nutrient content. These findings indicate that exclusive recommendations of fresh produce ignore the nutrient benefits of canned and frozen products. Nutritional comparison would be facilitated if future research would express nutrient data on a dry weight basis to account for changes in moisture. Copyright © 2007 Society of Chemical Industry     

Nutritional comparison of fresh,frozen, and canned fruits and vegetables II. Vitamin A and carotenoids,vitamin E,minerals and fiber

In this second part of our review, we examine the literature for changes in carotenoids, vitamin E, minerals, and fiber due to processing, storage, and cooking of fresh, frozen, and canned fruits and vegetables. While inconsistencies in methodology and reporting methods complicate interpretation of the data, the results show that these nutrients are generally similar in comparable fresh and processed products. The higher levels of carotenoids typically found in canned as compared to fresh products may be attributed to either reporting results on a wet rather than dry weight basis, greater extractability, or differences in cultivars. There are relatively few studies on processing, storage, and cooking effects on vitamin E in fruits and vegetables. Further research is needed to understand nutritional changes in those few fruits and vegetables rich in vitamin E, such as tomatoes. Minerals and fiber are generally stable to processing, storage, and cooking, but may be lost in peeling and other removal steps during processing. Mineral uptake (e.g., calcium) or addition (e.g., sodium) during processing can change the natural mineral composition of a product. Sodium concerns in canned food can be addressed by choosing products with no salt added. Since nutrient content varies considerably by commodity, cultivar, and postharvest treatments, inclusion of a wide variety of fruits and vegetables in the diet is encouraged. Copyright © 2007 Society of Chemical Industry     

Phenolic profile and antioxidant activity of thermally processed sponge gourd (Luffa cylindrica) as studied by using high performance thin layer chromatography (HPTLC)

The effect of different extracting solvents (methanol, ethanol and butanol) and cooking treatments such as pressure cooking, microwave cooking and frying was studied in regards to phenolic profile and antioxidant activity of Sponge gourd (L. cylindrica). The antioxidant activity was investigated using different assays, namely, ferric thiocyanate test (FTC), thiobarbituric acid test (TBA), ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) and DPPH free radicals scavenging test. A densitometric HPTLC analysis was performed for the analysis of phenolic acids and flavonoids. The inconsistent effect of cooking treatments on antioxidant potential was observed. In general, frying was most potent cooking treatments to retain the maximum antioxidant capacity. Correlation studies indicated that the phenolic compounds including flavonoids were mainly responsible for ferric reducing power, free radical scavenging activity and percent inhibition activity.     

Effect of cooking on the antioxidant properties of coloured peppers

Pepper (Capsicum annum L.) has long been recognized as an excellent source of antioxidants, being rich in ascorbic acid and other phytochemicals. This study was conducted to investigate the effect of different cooking methods on the antioxidant properties of coloured peppers. Six varieties of peppers were subjected to different cooking methods, such as microwave heating, stir-frying and boiling in water, for 5 min individually. The cooked and raw peppers were analyzed for radical-scavenging activity (RSA) and total polyphenol content (TP) using 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl–high-pressure liquid chromatography (DPPH)–HPLC and Folin-Ciocalteu methods, respectively. The samples were also evaluated for ascorbic acid content (AsA) by HPLC. Total carotenoid content was determined spectrophotometrically. Results suggest that there is no significant (P > 0.05) difference in RSA, TP, AsA and total carotenoid contents between the cooked and raw peppers when processed for 5 min. However, the cooked peppers show marked differences (P < 0.05) in the RSA, TP and AsA when cooked for 5 min in boiling water with further reduction observed after boiling for 30 min. This may be due to the leaching of antioxidant compounds from the pepper into the cooking water during the prolonged exposure to water and heat. Therefore, it is vital to use less water and cooking time and also to consume the water used for boiling so as to obtain the optimum benefits of bioactive compounds present in peppers. It is concluded that microwave heating and stir-frying without using water are more suitable cooking methods for pepper, to ensure the maximum retention of antioxidant molecules.     

Effect of water cooking on free phytosterol levels in beans and vegetables

Plant sterols (phytosterols) are known to decrease plasma cholesterol, mainly the atherogenic LDL cholesterol. In an earlier study, the thermal stability of phytosterols in vegetable oils was reported. The aim of this present work was to investigate the potential effect of cooking (30 min in boiling water), for eight plant products (broad bean, celery, cabbage, courgette, carrot, cauliflower, onion, pepper), on the free phytosterol level. Sitosterol was the most abundant sterol, followed by campesterol. After cooking, the level of total sterols was higher in all vegetables than that before cooking, if dry matter is considered. Acid hydrolysis (active for glycosylated phytosterols) yielded a higher sterol value than alkaline hydrolysis alone (active for esterified phytosterols). This indicated that studied vegetables contained appreciable amounts of steryl glycosides. Their cooking induced higher values of free phytosterols. Cooked vegetables could give better protection against cardiovascular diseases thanks to higher phytosterol levels.     

Influence of germination techniques on sprout yield,biosynthesis of ascorbic acid and cooking ability,in chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.)

Effects of germination time and illuminations on sprout yield, biosynthesis of ascorbic acid, cooking ability and moisture accumulation in chickpeas were significant (p ? 0.01). Green light had the highest promoting effect on the ascorbic acid level (40.59 mg/100 g) as compared to other illuminations but significantly reduced the sprout yield (188.6 g) as compared to dark, fluorescence and γ-rays illuminations with significantly high sprout yield (196 g) and imbibing moisture (51%). Cooking time was reduced by 43% due to γ-rays in un-soaked seed. Cooking time increased in all treated chickpea samples after 24 h germination and thereafter decreased significantly. Red light significantly increased the cooking time (68.44 min) followed by fluorescent (64.5 min), yellow (61.8 min) and green light (60.9 min). The results indicated that germination of chickpea under green light was an effective process in enhancing ascorbic acid content while dark, fluorescence and γ-rays were effective in promoting sprout growth and to some extent biosynthesis of ascorbic acid.     

Effects of traditional and modified technology,in the production of frozen cauliflower,on the contents of selected antioxidative compounds

The investigation concerned white and green cauliflowers: a traditional technology of freeze – blanched cauliflower, a modified technology of freeze – cooked cauliflower, and two temperatures of frozen storage at −20 and −30 °C for 0, 4, 8, and 12 months. Compared with the white cauliflower, the green variety was characterized by significantly greater contents of dry matter, vitamin C, carotenoids, β-carotene, polyphenols and a higher antioxidative activity at all the stages of evaluation. Depending on the investigated sample, after 12 months of refrigerated storage, cauliflower prepared for consumption retained 29–50% of vitamin C, 73–100% of carotenoids, 53–125% of β-carotene, 69–85% of polyphenols and 26–40% of antioxidative activity in comparison with the raw material. After a 12-month storage, the product obtained using the modified technology contained significantly more vitamin C and in general showed a higher antioxidative activity than did with the traditional product. The lower storage temperature resulted in significantly better retention of vitamin C and also – in some samples – a better retention of carotenoids, β-carotene, and polyphenols. A higher sensory quality was found in products of green cauliflower obtained according to the traditional technology.     

Antioxidant activity and profiles of common vegetables in Singapore

Sixty-six types of vegetables commonly consumed in Singapore were analysed for their hydrophilic oxygen radical absorbance capacity (H-ORAC), total phenolic content (TPC), ascorbic acid (AA) and various lipophilic antioxidants. A single batch analysis of each vegetable showed that antioxidant composition and concentration varied widely across different vegetables. The vegetables with intense colours typically have high H-ORAC, TPC, AA, and carotenoid contents. Vegetables unique to the Asian market such as matrimony vine (Lycium chinense Miller), coriander, Chinese kale, water spinach and red chilli were consistently ranked high in H-ORAC, TPC, carotenoids and vitamin E levels. Based on consumption data, Chinese Singaporeans appear to have a higher intake of lutein, zeaxanthin, β-carotene, and tocopherols compared to the US population. Overall findings suggest that dark green leafy and brightly-coloured vegetables tend to contain high antioxidants. Our data are useful reference and substantiate many public health agencies’ recommendation to consume more vegetables, particularly the dark green leafy and brightly-coloured varieties.     

Flavonoid content and antioxidant activity of vegetables from Indonesia

Extracts from 11 vegetables of Indonesian origin were screened for flavonoid content, total phenolics, and antioxidant activity. The flavonols myricetin, quercetin, and kaempferol and flavones luteolin and apigenin were quantified by HPLC. Flavonoid content in mg/100 g fresh weight (fw) was apparently initially reported for Cosmos caudatus H.B.K. (52.19), Polyscias pinnata (52.19), Pluchea indica Less. (6.39), Nothopanax scutellarius (Burm.f.) Merr (5.43), Talinum triangulare (Jacq.) Willd. (3.93), Pilea melastomoides (Poir.) Bl. (2.27), and Etlingera elatior (Jack) R.M.Sm (1.18). The flavonoid content of the vegetables studied were mainly quercetin and kaempferol and ranged from 0.3 to 143 mg/100 g fw, with the highest level found in Sauropus androgynus (L) Merr. C. caudatus H.B.K. had the greatest total phenols among the vegetables analysed, with 1.52 mg GAE/100 g fw. P. indica Less. and C. caudatus H.B.K. had the highest antioxidant activity as measured by ferric cyanide reducing power, DPPH (2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl) and ABTS (2,2′-azino-bis-(3-ethylbenzthiazoline-6-sulphonic acid) scavenging, and inhibition of linoleic acid oxidation. Therefore, S. androgynus (L) Merr, C. caudatus H.B.K., and P. pinnata were identified as potentially rich sources of dietary flavonoids and antioxidants.     

Changes in bioactive compounds and antioxidant capacity of fresh-cut cashew apple

In this study, ascorbic acid, total polyphenols and proanthocyanidins of fresh-cut cashew apple were quantified. Antioxidant capacity was determined in whole juice and in polyphenols extracts by three methods: 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH), ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) and ??-carotene bleaching. Effect of cutting and storage for 24 h at 2 °C, 27 °C and 40 °C on these compounds were also evaluated. Cashew apple presented 163 mg of ascorbic acid per 100 g of fresh weight (FW). Soluble and hydrolysable polyphenols contents were 12.79 mg GAE/100 g FW and 18.53 mg GAE/100 g FW and proanthocyanidins were 9.27 mg/100 g FW. Antioxidant capacity of juice and polyphenols extract was high for DPPH method. Storage temperatures affected bioactive compounds on cut cashew apple. The content of ascorbic acid decreased in all temperatures. Proanthocyanidins were more sensitive to 40 °C than to other temperatures. The content of polyphenols and antioxidant capacity of juice by DPPH assay did not change. However, the reducing power was lower in samples kept at high temperatures. A strong positive correlation between ascorbic acid and FRAP (r = 0.99) and a negative correlation between DPPH and FRAP (r = − 0.79) were observed. No correlations were found between polyphenols and antioxidant capacity indicating the importance of phenolic composition in the extracts. The results confirm the importance of temperature and injury on the quality of cashew apple.     

Kinetics of colour,chlorophyll, and ascorbic acid content in spinach baked in different types of oven

Spinach was baked in steam-assisted hybrid ovens, natural and forced convection ovens, and saturated steam ovens at different temperatures and baking times. The moisture content, water activity, peroxidise activity, colour, ascorbic acid, and chlorophyll content were determined for each baking time and kinetic analysis of thermal degradation of the colour, chlorophyll, and ascorbic acid were evaluated. Degradation of green colour, total chlorophyll, and ascorbic acid in spinach leaves during the baking process was considered as first order reaction kinetics and temperature dependency of degradation was described by the Arrhenius equation. Baking in steam-assisted hybrid ovens resulted in the highest rate of reaction for both colour change and chlorophyll degradation, followed by forced convection and then natural convection ovens. The existence of steam in the baking chamber resulted in an acceleration of the baking process and better ascorbic acid retention in spinach was determined by baking in steam-assisted hybrid ovens. Degradation kinetics could allow definition of optimum baking temperatures and times in different types of ovens and shorter baking times should be preferred in steam-assisted hybrid ovens if fresh appearance (high greenness) is desired.     

Innovative processes and technologies for modified atmosphere packaging of fresh and fresh-cut fruits and vegetables

Modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) technology has been commercially viable since the 1970s. Currently, MAP is extensively used worldwide to preserve the quality and extend the shelf-life of whole fresh fruits and vegetables, but is also increasingly used to extend the shelf-life of minimally processed fresh fruit and vegetables. This review discusses new processes and technologies that can be used to improve quality preservation and consumer acceptability of minimally processed produce where high respiration rates and challenging degradation processes operate. New packaging innovations are enabling producers and retailers to further maintain quality for longer. Innovative approaches to extend shelf-life include active MAP with differentially permeable films, films that incorporate antimicrobial properties, edible coatings that confer barriers properties, and the use of non-traditional gases to modify respiration. Intelligent packaging using integrated sensor technologies that can indicate maturity, ripeness, respiration rate and spoilage are also appearing. This review demonstrates that preservation technologies and associated packaging developments that can be combined with modified atmosphere are constantly evolving technology platforms. Adoption of combinations of technology improvements will be critical in responding to commercial trends towards more minimally processed fresh-cut and ready-to-eat fruit and vegetable products, which require specialized packaging solutions.     

Antioxidant capacity,phenol, anthocyanin and ascorbic acid contents in raspberries,blackberries, red currants,gooseberries and Cornelian cherries

Raspberry (Rubus idaeus), blackberry (Rubus fructicosus), raspberry × blackberry hybrids, red currant (Ribes sativum), gooseberry (Ribes glossularia) and Cornelian cherry (Cormus mas) cultivars and native populations of varied pigmentation, originally from the Mediterranean area of Northern Greece, were assayed for antioxidant activity (determined as ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) and deoxyribose protection), ascorbic acid, phenol, and anthocyanin contents. FRAP values ranged from 41 to 149 μmol ascorbic acid g⁻¹ dry weight and protection of deoxyribose ranged from 16.1% up to 98.9%. Anthocyanin content ranged from 1.3, in yellow-coloured fruit, up to 223 mg cyanidin-3-glucoside equivalents 100 g⁻¹ fresh weight in Cornelian cherry, whereas phenol content ranged from 657 up to 2611 mg gallic acid equivalents 100 g⁻¹dry weight. Ascorbic acid content ranged from 14 up to 103 mg 100 g⁻¹ fresh weight. The present study outlines that the native Cornelian cherry population is an extremely rich source of antioxidants, demonstrating its potential use as a food additive.