The fuel cell electric vehicles: The highlight review

Transportation sector is the important sector and consumed the most fossil fuel in the world. Since COVID-19 started in 2019, this sector had become the world connector because every country relies on logistics. The transportation sector does not only deal with the human transportation but also relates to logistics. Research in every country has searched for alternative transportation to replace internal combustion engines using fossil fuel, one of the most prominent choices is fuel cells. Fuel cells can use hydrogen as fuel. Hydrogen can be fed to the fuel cells to provide electric power to drive vehicles, no greenhouse gas emission and no direct combustion required. The fuel cells have been developed widely as the 21st century energy-conservation devices for mobile, stationary, and especially vehicles. The fuel cell electric vehicles using hydrogen as fuel were also called hydrogen fuel cell vehicles or hydrogen electric vehicles. The fuel cells were misconceived by several people that they were batteries, but the fuel cells could provide electric power continuously if their fuel was provided continuously. The batteries could provide electric power as their only capacities, when all ions are released, no power could be provided. Because the fuel cell vehicles play important roles for our future transportation, the overall review for these vehicles is significantly interesting. This overall review can provide general and technical information, variety of readers; vehicle users, manufacturers, and scientists, can perceive and understand the fuel cell vehicles within this review. The readers can realize how important the fuel cell technologies are and support research around the world to drive the fuel cell vehicles to be the leading vehicles in our sustainable developing world.     

Airport electric vehicle powered by fuel cell

Nowadays, new technologies and breakthroughs in the field of energy efficiency, alternative fuels and added-value electronics are leading to bigger, more sustainable and green thinking applications. Within the Automotive Industry, there is a clear declaration of commitment with the environment and natural resources. The presence of passenger vehicles of hybrid architecture, public transport powered by cleaner fuels, non-aggressive utility vehicles and an encouraging social awareness, are bringing to light a new scenario where conventional and advanced solutions will be in force.     

Lifecycle performance assessment of fuel cell/battery electric vehicles

This paper has performed an assessment of lifecycle (as known as well-to-wheels, WTW) greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and energy consumption of a fuel cell vehicle (FCV). The simulation tool MATLAB/Simulink is employed to examine the real-time behaviors of an FCV, which are used to determine the energy efficiency and the fuel economy of the FCV. Then, the GREET (Greenhouse gases, Regulated Emissions, and Energy use in Transportation) model is used to analyze the fuel-cycle energy consumption and GHG emissions for hydrogen fuels. Three potential pathways of hydrogen production for FCV application are examined, namely, steam reforming of natural gas, water electrolysis using grid electricity, and water electrolysis using photovoltaic (PV) electricity, respectively. Results show that the FCV has the maximum system efficiency of 60%, which occurs at about 25% of the maximum net system power. In addition, the FCVs fueled with PV electrolysis hydrogen could reduce about 99.2% energy consumption and 46.6% GHG emissions as compared to the conventional gasoline vehicles (GVs). However, the lifecycle energy consumption and GHG emissions of the FCVs fueled with grid-electrolysis hydrogen are 35% and 52.8% respectively higher than those of the conventional GVs. As compared to the grid-based battery electric vehicles (BEVs), the FCVs fueled with reforming hydrogen from natural gas are about 79.0% and 66.4% in the lifecycle energy consumption and GHG emissions, respectively.     

Economic energy management strategy design and simulation for a dual-stack fuel cell electric vehicle

This paper presents the design and simulation validation of two energy management strategies for dual-stack fuel cell electric vehicles. With growing concerns about environmental issues and the fossil energy crisis, finding alternative methods for vehicle propulsion is necessary. Proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cell systems are now considered to be one of the most promising alternative energy sources. In this work, the challenge of further improving the fuel economy and extending the driving range of a fuel cell vehicle is addressed by a dual-stack fuel cell system with specific energy management strategies. An efficiency optimization strategy and an instantaneous optimization strategy are proposed. Simulation validation for each strategy is conducted based on a dual-stack fuel cell electric vehicle model which follows the new European driving cycle (NEDC). Simulation results show that a dual-stack fuel cell system with proposed energy management strategies can significantly improve the fuel economy of a fuel cell vehicle and thus lengthen the driving range while being able to keep the start-stop frequency of the fuel cell stack within a reasonable range.     

Hydrogen release properties of lithium alanate for application to fuel cell propulsion systems

In this paper the results of an experimental study on LiAlH₄ (lithium alanate) as hydrogen source for fuel cell propulsion systems are reported. The compound examined in this work was selected as reference material for light metal hydrides, because of its high hydrogen content (10.5 wt.%) and interesting desorption kinetic properties at moderate temperatures. Thermal dynamic and kinetic of hydrogen release from this hydride were investigated using a fixed bed reactor to evaluate the effect of heating procedure, carrier gas flow rate and sample form. The aim of this study was to characterize the lithium alanate decomposition through the reaction steps leading to the formation of Li₃AlH₆ and LiH. A hydrogen tank was designed and realized to contain pellets of lithium alanate as feeding for a fuel cell propulsion system based on a 2-kW Polymeric Electrolyte Fuel Cell (PEFC) stack. The fuel cell system was integrated into the power train comprising DC-DC converter, energy storage systems and electric drive for moped applications (3 kW). The experiments on the power train were conducted on a test bench able to simulate the vehicle behaviour and road characteristics on specific driving cycles. In particular the efficiencies of individual components and overall power train were analyzed evidencing the energy requirements of the hydrogen storage material.     

Hydrogen and fuel cell activities at UNIDO-ICHET

To place hydrogen energy usage into proper perspective, International Center for Hydrogen Energy Technologies (ICHET) has been implementing measures to demonstrate potential benefits of the “hydrogen and fuel cell systems” in developing countries. Demonstration of technologies is the most important aspect of ICHET vision for the formation of an industry in the developing world. ICHET has embarked on a series of educational and laboratory activities designed to increase the knowledge and awareness of students and advanced researchers concerning hydrogen energy technologies. The state of the art fuel cell laboratory is available for joint technology development and demonstration activities. Internship activities facilitate knowledge transfer, exchange of information at regional, national and international levels and involve academics, researchers, experts and service providers. Collaboration is a key part of the organizational strategy for joint projects, funding and trainings in the field of hydrogen and fuel cells.     

Drive-train simulator for a fuel cell hybrid vehicle

The model formulation, development process, and experimental validation of a new vehicle powertrain simulator called LFM (Light, Fast, and Modifiable) are presented. The existing powertrain simulators were reviewed and it was concluded that there is a need for a new, easily modifiable simulation platform that will be flexible and sufficiently robust to address a variety of hybrid vehicle platforms. First, the structure and operating principle of the LFM simulator are presented, followed by a discussion of the subsystems and input/output parameters. Finally, a validation exercise is presented in which the simulator's inputs were specified to represent the University of Delaware's fuel cell hybrid transit vehicle and “driven” using an actual drive cycle acquired from it. Good agreement between the output of the simulator and the physical data acquired by the vehicle's on-board sensors indicates that the simulator constitutes a powerful and reliable design tool.     

Hydrogen from aluminium in a flow reactor for fuel cell applications

Aluminium appears to be a promising material for on-board hydrogen generation in fuel cell applications given the comparatively large amount of hydrogen produced per gram of aluminium in a safe system. A microfuel processor with aluminium and water as reactants is developed in a flow reactor for application in portable power sources. Two types of reactor are used. One reactor permits the direct feeding of liquid water in channels containing aluminium pellets, whereas the other utilizes the heat produced from the reaction to vapourize liquid water before entry into the reactor. Two additives, namely, calcium oxide (CaO) and sodium hydroxide (NaOH), are used to enhance the reaction rate. A maximum conversion of 78.6% with respect to aluminium is achieved when the water entering in the reactor is vapourized partially. In the case of liquid water entering the reactor, the conversion is 74.4%.     

Successful pathway for locally driven fuel cell electric vehicle adoption: Early evidence from South Korea

South Korea is an outstanding pioneer of fuel cell electric vehicle (FCEV) technology, an industry that is fundamental to the hydrogen ecosystem. This study aims to explore possible pathways for the successful adoption of FCEV in the local region. By using the fuzzy-set quality comparative analysis (fs/QCA) method, we identify three auspicious pathways based on the 16 regional cases in Korea. We find that, first, a large number of hydrogen (H₂) stations will lead to successful FCEV adoption (H₂ STATION→FCEV). Second, the combination of high levels of greenhouse gases(GHGs) and the local government-driven future construction plans of H₂ stations can also be a remarkable pathway (GHGs1 PLAN→FCEV). Lastly, a combination of high levels of GHGs and subsidies can be another compelling pathway (GHGs1 SUBSIDIES→FCEV). This study provides early evidence of FCEVs adoption and can be of use to latecomer countries to the hydrogen economy.     

氢燃料在汽车上的应用

本文作者结合自己在氢发动机方面的研究结果,分析了氢在汽车上应用时的特点,总结了汽车燃用氢时所存在的问题及解决方法。并介绍了目前世界各国在此方面的研究情况。     

Performance study of a PEM fuel cell

This paper presents the installation, maintenance and the efficiency of a Polymer Electrolyte Membrane (PEM) fuel cell, Ballard Trade Mark that use pure hydrogen as fuel and air as an oxidant. A study of the overall efficiency, considering the co-generation of electrical and thermal energies, is performed. The system consists of the cell, a CC/CC converter, a battery, a DC/AC inverter and the load. The behavior of the system is experimentally analyzed for different load states (cases) by measuring and controlling all the parameters registered by the communication software of the cell. The software can adjust limit values for current intensity, hydrogen flow, pressure and the temperature.     

A fuel cell powered autonomous surface vehicle: The Eco-SWAMP project

Autonomous surface vehicles are becoming consolidated robotic tools for marine, coastal and inland surveys. Autonomous surface vehicles are usually equipped with electronic instruments to perform remotely controlled or autonomous geo-morphological, biological, chemical, physical analyses and data collection. Actually, well-established solutions provide battery power but the research focuses on introducing a fuel cell to decrease the environmental impact meanwhile increasing the cruising range. In this paper, the design of the Eco-SWAMP, a fuel cell powered autonomous surface vehicle, is presented starting from its battery-powered version, the SWAMP prototype. The experimental power consumption profile of the SWAMP during four missions is analysed to define the primary energy sources ratings of the Eco-SWAMP. After a commercial choice of primary sources, power management algorithms are designed and compared in MATLAB/Simulink environment by simulation results. The proposed procedure can be easily applied to any autonomous marine vehicle.     

The possibility of an accidental scenario for marine transportation of fuel cell vehicle: Hydrogen releases from TPRD by radiant heat from lower deck

In case fires break out on the lower deck of a car carrier ship or a ferry, the fuel cell vehicles (FCVs) parked on the upper deck may be exposed to radiant heat from the lower deck. Assuming that the thermal pressure relief device (TPRD) of an FCV hydrogen cylinder is activated by the radiant heat without the presence of flames, hydrogen gas will be released by TPRD to form combustible air-fuel mixtures in the vicinity. To investigate the possibility of this accident scenario, the present study investigated the relationship between radiant heat and TPRD activation time and evaluated the possibility of radiant heat causing hydrogen releases by TPRD activation under the condition of deck temperature reaching the spontaneous ignition level of the tires and other automotive parts. It was found: a) the tires as well as polypropylene and other plastic parts underwent spontaneous ignition before TPRD was activated by radiant heat and b) when finally TPRD was activated, the hydrogen releases were rapidly burned by the flames of the tires and plastic parts on fire. Consequently it was concluded that the explosion of air-fuel mixtures assumed in the accident scenario does not occur in the real world.     

Architecture design and performance analysis of a hybrid hydrogen fuel cell system for unmanned aerial vehicle

The flight endurance of UAV systems is an important issue that restricts the operational capabilities. Thus, different energy systems and alternative onboard energy generation systems have been tested for the UAVs. Within these systems, fuel cells provide high energy density that can increase flight endurance greatly. In this study, a PEM fuel cell – Li-Po battery hybrid system has been developed by evaluating three architecture models. In the guide of the experimental power demand data of a fixed-wing UAV, modeling and testing procedures were performed. Battery voltage and fuel cell current variations observed during the ground tests were evaluated. It has been observed that approximately 160–170 W of the 250 W power is met by the fuel cell since no preconditioning has been applied and the temperature values at which the fuel cell exhibits its optimum performance. In the case where the fuel cell could provide 7.8 An under conditions where the humidification effects were not included in the model, the required current was over 7.8 A between approximately 400-1200 s. The fuel cell and battery behavior in response to the sudden power changes and to the uncertainties corresponding to the changes in the motor power during the flight are also detailed.     

Analysis of a fuel cell hybrid commuter railway vehicle

This study presents paper presents an analysis of the potential CO₂ savings that could be gained through the introduction of hydrogen-powered fuel cells on a commuter-style railway route. Vehicle is modelled as a fuel cell series hybrid. The analysis consists of power/energy flow models of a fuel cell stack, battery pack and hybrid drive controller. The models are implemented in a custom C# application and are capable of providing key parametric information of the simulated journey and individual energy drive components. A typical commuter return journey between Stratford Upon Avon and Birmingham is investigated. The fuel cell stack and battery pack behaviour is assessed for different stack sizes, battery sizes and control strategies to evaluate the performance of the overall system with the aim of understanding the optimum component configuration. Finally, the fuel (H₂) requirements are compared with typical diesel and hybrid-diesel powered vehicles with the aim of understanding the potential energy savings gained from such a fuel cell hybrid vehicle.     

Modeling operating modes,energy consumptions,and infrastructure requirements of fuel cell plug in hybrid electric vehicles using longitudinal geographical transportation data

The fuel cell plug in hybrid electric vehicle (FCPHEV) is a near-term realizable concept to commercialize hydrogen fuel cell vehicles (FCV). Relative to conventional FCVs, FCPHEVs seek to achieve fuel economy benefits through the displacement of hydrogen energy with grid-sourced electrical energy, and they may have less dependence on a sparse hydrogen fueling infrastructure. Through the simulation of almost 690,000 FCPHEV trips using geographic information system (GIS) data surveyed from a fleet of private vehicles in the Puget Sound area of Washington State, USA, this study derives the electrical and hydrogen energy consumption of various design and control variants of FCPHEVs. Results demonstrate that FCPHEVs can realize hydrogen fuel consumption reductions relative to conventional FCV technologies, and that the fuel consumption reductions increase with increased charge depleting range. In addition, this study quantifies the degree to which FCPHEVs are less dependent on hydrogen fueling infrastructure, as FCPHEVs can refuel with hydrogen at a lower rate than FCVs. Reductions in hydrogen refueling infrastructure dependence vary with control strategies and vehicle charge depleting range, but reductions in fleet-level refueling events of 93% can be realized for FCPHEVs with 40 miles (60 km) of charge depleting range. These fueling events occur on or near the network of highways at approximately 4% of the rate (refuelings per year) of that for conventional FCVs. These results demonstrate that FCPHEVs are a type of FCV that can enable an effective and concentrated hydrogen refueling network.     

Comparative requirements for electric energy for production of hydrogen fuel and/or recharging of battery electric automobile fleets in New Zealand and the United States

Within the current outlook for sustainable electric energy supply with concomitant reduction in emission of greenhouse gases, accelerated attention is focusing on the long-term development of hydrogen fuel cell and all-electric battery vehicles to provide alternative fuels to replace petroleum-derived fuels for automotive national fleets. The potential varies significantly between large industrially developed nations and smaller industrially developing nations. The requirement for additional electric energy supply from low-specific energy renewable resources and high-specific energy nuclear resources depends strongly on individual national economic, environmental, and political factors. Analysis of the additional electric energy supply required for the two potential large-scale technologies for fueling future national transportation sectors is compared for a large Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) nation (USA) with a small OECD nation (New Zealand), normalized on a per-capita basis.     

Natural and forced ventilation study in an enclosure hosting a fuel cell

The purpose of the experimental work described in this paper is the determination of the ventilation requirements in enclosures containing fuel cells such that, in the case of a small non catastrophic release, the H₂ concentration in air for zone 2 ATEX (2% v/v) is not exceeded. A full scale fuel cell was placed inside the experimental facility having 25 m³ volume. Three different leaks were investigated (40, 90 and 180 Nlt/min) and H₂ concentrations were measured at five locations inside the facility. Several vent areas were examined for the cases of natural ventilation. When natural ventilation failed to ensure H₂ concentrations less than 2% v/v in the facility, mechanical ventilation using two fans was investigated.Based on the experimental set up, it was found that natural ventilation is sufficient when the air-flow calculated from ATEX guidelines is higher than 0.009 m³/s and the release flow rate corresponds to a non-catastrophic release, i.e. 40 Nlt/min. For higher release flow rates most of the ventilation configurations were not sufficient to maintain a H₂ concentration less than 2% v/v.All forced ventilation configurations examined (together with the free ventilation areas used) were sufficient to maintain a H₂ concentration below 2% v/v for 40 Nlt/min and 90 Nlt/min release flow rates. For the higher release flow rate of 180 Nlt/min, most of the forced ventilation configurations were insufficient.     

Hydrogen pressure drop characteristics in a fuel cell stack

Research on hydrogen pressure characteristics was performed for a fuel cell stack to supply a rule of hydrogen pressure drop for flooding diagnostic systems. Some experiments on the hydrogen pressure drop in various operating pressure, temperature, flowrate and stack current conditions were carried out, and hydrodynamic calculation was managed to compare with the experiment results. Results show that the hydrogen pressure drop is strongly affected by liquid water content in the flow channel of fuel cells, and it is not in normal relation with flowrate when the stoichiometric ratio is inconstant. The total pressure drop can be calculated by a frictional pressure loss formula accurately, relating with mixture viscosity, stack temperature, operating pressure, stoichiometric ratio and stack current. The pressure drop characteristics will be useful for predicting liquid water flooding in fuel cell stacks before flow channels have been jammed as a diagnostic tool in electric control systems.