Dehulling characteristics,sensory and functional properties of flours from selected cowpea varieties

BACKGROUND: The knowledge of dehulling characteristics is very important in the selection of cowpeas for flour production. In this study the sensory and functional properties of cowpea flour as influenced by dehulling method (wet and dry/mechanical dehulling) and cowpea variety (white, maroon and mottled) were investigated. RESULTS: White cowpea showed a significantly different (P < 0.05) and higher dehulling rate (DR > 97%) for all dehulling methods. Maroon and mottled cowpeas were poorly dehulled (DR < 10%) when using the wet method (WD). Dry dehulling (DD) was effective on all three varieties (DR > 94%). The highest yield of flour was observed with white cowpea (80% for DD and 96% for WD). The beany odour intensity of flours was dependent on the method of dehulling used. Flour functionality was more significantly influenced by cowpea variety than by dehulling method. CONCLUSION: Dry dehulling could be recommended for cowpea flour production, as this method was found to be more effective on the selected cowpea varieties. Owing to the observed variation in flour functionality among cowpea varieties, the choice of a particular variety for flour production will depend on the intended use of the flour. Copyright © 2009 Society of Chemical Industry     

Hydrothermal treatments of two cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L. Walp) varieties: effect of micronisation on physicochemical and structural characteristics

The effects of a hydrothermal treatment consisting of tempering (to 41% moisture) and heating to 153 °C (micronisation) on the structural and physicochemical characteristics of two cowpea varieties were studied. The untreated varieties had similar cooking times, although cooked Bechuana white cowpeas were significantly (P ≤ 0.05) softer and had a higher incidence of splitting than Var. 462 cowpeas. This may be due in part to differences in cotyledon structure affecting water uptake during cooking. The hydrothermal treatment changed the physical structure and chemical properties of the cowpea seeds. This led to significant (P ≤ 0.05) reductions in the cooking time of micronised Bechuana white and Var. 462 cowpeas, by 47 and 36% respectively, as compared with control samples. Micronisation caused physical fissuring of the seed coat and cotyledon and significantly (P ≤ 0.05) reduced the bulk density of treated seeds. These changes in the physical structure significantly (P ≤ 0.05) improved the initial water uptake during soaking and cooking, increased the enzyme‐susceptible starch and reduced the protein solubility and hydration capacity of the cowpea seeds. Cooked (60 min) micronised cowpeas also had significantly (P ≤ 0.05) more splits and a significantly (P ≤ 0.05) softer texture than control samples. Copyright © 2005 Society of Chemical Industry     

Microscopic, Nutritional and Functional Properties of Cowpea Flours and Protein Concentrates During Storage

During storage for 6 mo at 64% RH, whole seed flour, dehulled seed flour and air-classified protein concentrate from cowpeas showed little change in nutritional or sensory properties but there were improvements in functional properties. However, wet-processed protein concentrate, after drum-drying, darkened and had reduced functionality by the 6th mo. When storaged at 79% RH, all cowpea products darkened significantly, showed decreased lysine contents and lower nitrogen, solubility, all emulsification and foaming characteristics. Both dehulling and air classification improved the storage properties of cowpea products but drum drying of a wet-processed product had an adverse effect on functionality and nutritive value, especially when stored at 79% RH.     

Fungi and mycotoxins in cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L) on Nigerian markets

ABSTRACT

In this study, 81 samples of two cowpea varieties (brown: 54; white: 27) collected from various markets in southwestern Nigeria were examined for fungal and mycotoxin contamination. Moulds belonging to Aspergillus, Fusarium, and Penicillium were recovered from 99% of the samples. In both cowpea varieties, Aspergillus (52–53%) dominated Fusarium (29–30%) and Penicillium (17–20%). The interactive effect of cowpea variety and sampled location was significant (p = .013) on the occurrence of Fusarium species. Aflatoxins were detected in one brown and two white cowpea samples at concentrations reaching 209 and 84 µg/kg, respectively. Additionally, beauvericin was found in two samples of each cowpea variety, albeit at low concentrations. Cowpea presents as an alternative vegetable protein source to groundnuts in household nutrition with respect to mycotoxin contamination. Simple techniques to prevent mycotoxins in dry cowpeas are discussed.     

Finite Element Modeling of Heat and Mass Transfer During Steaming of Cowpea Seeds

One of the major constraints in utilization of cowpeas is from storage losses due to cowpea weevil infestation. Appropriate steaming of cowpeas has been known to prevent weevil infestation during storage. A finite element model was developed to describe simultaneous heat and mass transfer, which could be further used in examining physicochemical changes in seeds. Predicted temperature and moisture profiles in the seeds agreed well with experimental results. The average deviations of center and surface temperatures between predicted and observed values after 15 min of steaming were 0.91 °C (relative error, 1.0%) and 0.85 °C (relative error, 0.85%), respectively. The maximum error between observed and predicted moisture uptake was 8.60%.     

The efficacy of harvest time modification and intercropping as methods of reducing the field infestation of cowpeas by storage bruchids in Kenya

A study was carried out in Eastern Province, Kenya to evaluate whether the harvesting of cowpeas at different times and intercropping with maize were effective in reducing field infestation by storage bruchids.

Cowpea seed harvested very late (4 weeks after the recommended harvest time) was infested by storage bruchids to a significantly greater extent than cowpeas harvested early or at the recommended harvest time. The intercropping experiments showed that bruchid infestation was significantly reduced in the intercropped cowpeas. These results are discussed in view of the current cowpea farming systems in Kenya.     

Fat reduction affects quality of akara (fried cowpea paste)

Akara, a fried finger food made from cowpeas (Vigna unguiculata), is popular in West Africa and has been shown to be acceptable to American consumers. Akara is, however, a high‐fat food (about 31%, dry wt basis). We determined the effects of incorporating two modifiers, high amylose cornstarch or extruded cowpea flour, on akara fat content and consumer acceptability. The modifiers were used at the 10% level. Akara fat content was reduced by 26.1% with cornstarch and by 36.8% with extruded cowpea flour. There were no significant differences in sensory ratings among samples, and all samples received acceptable ratings (6 = like slightly) for overall liking.     

不同品种豇豆发酵过程中质构品质变化及产植物细胞壁降解酶微生物种类分析

以4种不同品种豇豆为研究对象,探究发酵过程中菌群和质构特性变化,分析造成不同品种发酵豇豆软腐的产植物细胞壁降解酶(Plant cell wall degradation enzymes,PCWDEs)微生物的主要种类。采用质构分析仪测定发酵过程中豇豆质构的变化,用鉴别培养基筛选产PCWDEs微生物并进行16S rDNA或18S rDNA分子生物学鉴定。结果表明:豇豆品种A(成豇10号)在发酵过程中表现出的质构品质最好,与豇豆品种A相比,豆品种B(红嘴胖豇)、品种C(成豇9号)和品种D(挂面红)的硬度、弹性、咀嚼力下降得更快,尤其是豇豆品种B。对产PCWDES微生物种类分析得知,品种B发酵豇豆中产PCWDEs微生物数量和种类最多且产酶类别多样,微生物分属于肠杆菌属(Enterobacter)、柠檬酸杆菌属(Citrobacter)、假单胞菌属(Pseudomonas)、葡萄球菌属(Staphylococcus)、粘菌属(Myroides)、泛菌属(Pantoea)和克雷伯氏菌属(Klebsiella)等属;品种A、品种C、品种D中产PCWDEs微生物及产酶种类较少,仅在品种D中发现产PCWDEs的解鸟氨酸拉乌尔菌(Raoultella ornithinolytica);4种发酵豇豆中均分离得到产蛋白酶的植物乳杆菌(Lactobacillus plantarum)和产淀粉酶的异常威克汉姆酵母(Wickerhamomyces anomalus)。综上所述,不同品种豇豆在发酵过程中微生物群体及质构品质变化具有品种特异性,发酵后期豇豆的软腐与产PCWDEs微生物的种类和数量有关。     

Automatic, rapid screening of seed resistance in cowpea, Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walpers, to the seed beetle Callosobruchus maculatus (F.) (Coleoptera: Bruchidae) using acoustic monitoring

The biomonitor technique was investigated as a rapid and automatic method for measuring the resistance of cowpea varieties to the seed beetle Callosobruchus maculatus. This technique measures the activity of internally feeding insect larvae by counting ultrasonic emissions produced as they feed. Activity throughout the development of C. maculatus larvae in known susceptible and resistant cowpea varieties was recorded. This showed details of the development of each larval instar, and showed clear differences between the resistant and susceptible cowpeas. A rapid method for comparing cowpeas was proposed in which the activity of larvae was recorded for 24 h starting 14 days after oviposition. Using this method, significant differences in activity were apparent between one susceptible and two resistant cowpea varieties. Further comparisons using a randomised block experimental design also showed a clear difference in activity between one susceptible and one known resistant cowpea variety. This experimental protocol took 21 days. It is suggested that the biomonitor offers a promising method for screening seeds for resistance to insect pests with a reduction in the time and effort required over conventional bioassay methods.     

AKARA-MAKING CHARACTERISTICS OF FIVE U.S. VARIETIES OF COWPEAS (VIGNA UNGUICULATA)

Akara‐making characteristics of five U.S. varieties of cowpea were determined, using a small‐scale method developed based on 50 g dry seed starting material. Blackeye, crowder, pinkeye, white acre and a new breeding line (white‐eye) cowpeas were evaluated at three paste moisture contents (63, 65, 67%). Blackeye cowpeas at 65% paste moisture served as the control. Ranges for color characteristics were: lightness (L*), 59.8 to 68.3 (control = 61.9); chroma (intensity), 34.6 to 41.4 (control=38.3); hue angle (light brown), 72.7 to 78.6 (control = 74.9); total color difference, 12.8 to 14.9 (control= 14.0). Akara ball hardness ranged from 9.7 to 18.9 N (control= 14.2). Ranges for other texture characteristics were: elasticity, 1.79 to 3.18 mm (control=2.35); cohesiveness (ratio), 0.20 to 0.34 (control=0.23); gumminess, 2.45 to 4.61 N (control=3.23); and chewiness, 4.39 to 14.2 Jx10^3‐ (control=7.59). Each variety produced four to five balls per batch with weights ranging from 17.54 to 21.24 g (control=21.06 g). Paste with overall handling characteristics (ease of dispensing, ease of ball formation) and akara‐making quality (shape of ball, appearance of ball surface) the most like the control was the white‐eye, while crowder was the least like the control.     

Egg production and development of three strains of Callosobruchus maculatus (F.) (Coleoptera: Bruchidae)

The numbers of eggs laid by individual females of three geographically isolated strains of C. maculatus (F.) on different numbers of cowpeas were counted. Females of strains originating in the Yemen and Brazil laid about 40 eggs when provided with a single cowpea, whilst females of a Nigerian strain laid 75. Given 40 cowpeas, females of all three strains laid between 80 and 90 eggs. Only one or two adults of the Yemen strain emerged from cowpeas irrespective of the initial number of eggs present, compared with the ten or more adults of the other two strains which emerged when the cowpea bore numerous eggs. The daily levels of oviposition did not differ among the strains when females had access to cowpeas changed daily for others bearing no eggs. The periods of development differed among the three strains, the greatest median value being 33 days in the Yemen strain where the greatest individual variation in development times was also noted. The significance of the results to the development of possible control measures for this pest is discussed.     

Cowpea flour: A potential ingredient in food products

Cowpeas (Vigna unguiculata L. Walp) are an important grain legume in East and West African countries as well as in other developing countries. The U.S. is the only developed country producing large amounts of cowpeas. High protein (18 to 35%) and carbohydrate (50 to 65%) contents, together with an amino acid pattern complementary to that of cereal grains, make cowpeas potentially important to the human diet from a nutritional standpoint. Despite their potential as an inexpensive source of protein and energy, cowpeas are underutilized in the U.S. and other industrialized countries. A simple technology for preparing cowpea flour would stimulate increased consumption of this legume. This paper reviews the status of cowpea flour production technologies and uses of cowpea flour in various food products.     

Effects of cowpea varietal susceptibility and low pressure on the mortality of life stages of Callosobruchus maculatus (Coleoptera: Bruchidae)

Low pressure creates a low-oxygen controlled atmosphere that can kill all developmental stages of Callosobruchus maculatus (F.) (Coleoptera: Bruchidae). This study investigated the interaction of low pressure with seed variety to determine the susceptibility of different cowpea varieties to developmental stages of C. maculatus. Laboratory studies were performed to determine exposure periods to low pressure (32.5 ± 1.0 mm Hg) necessary to kill all life stages of C. maculatus on different cowpea varieties. The results indicated that with the exception of eggs, differences in exposure periods required to achieve 100% mortality varied with life stage and variety. The larval stages were the most susceptible, and larvae required shorter exposure periods to low pressure when reared on C. maculatus resistant varieties (24-125B-3 and IT89KD-288) than on susceptible varieties (CB-3, CB-5, CB-46 and UC-27). Analysis of variance (ANOVA) showed a significant interaction between the life stages of C. maculatus, exposure time and cowpea varieties on mortality. Integration of low pressure applications with storage of cowpea varieties resistant to C. maculatus has the potential of providing an alternative pest management tool to fumigants, which are sometimes used in protecting cowpea in storage from infestation by C. maculatus.     

Seed coat has no value in protecting cowpea seed against attack by Callosobruchus maculatus (F.)

Experiments were conducted to compare the oviposition preference of the cowpea seed beetle Callosobruchus maculatus (F.) on 22 cowpea varieties, with and without seed coat. The cowpeas included five resistant, four moderately resistant and 13 susceptible varieties. Ten of the varieties had smooth seed coats while 12 were wrinkled. Mean numbers of eggs laid on smooth and wrinkled varieties were not significantly different. The survival of the bruchid was also assessed on intact and decorticated seeds of five varieties, comprising two resistant varieties “Kanannado” and “IT89KD-288”, a moderately resistant variety “IT93K-513-2” and two susceptible varieties “IT87K-941-1” and “IT89KD-374-57”. There was no correlation of resistance level with the number of eggs oviposited on cowpea varieties. Under limited and free-choice conditions, cowpea seeds with intact seed coats were preferred to decorticated seeds for oviposition. Adult emergence, mean development periods and pre-adult mortality were similar when seed coats were removed or left intact. It is concluded that the seed coat may not be a useful aspect to consider for breeding of bruchid resistance into cowpea varieties.     

Hermetic storage as an alternative for controlling Callosobruchus maculatus (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) and preserving the quality of cowpeas

The aim of this study was to assess the use of modified atmosphere through hermetic storage in polyethylene silo bags and polyethylene terephthalate (PET) bottles as a technique to control Callosobruchus maculatus (F.) (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae: Bruchinae) and to preserve the quality of cowpeas during storage. Cowpea grains were stored in polyethylene silo bags, polyethylene terephthalate (PET) bottles and glass recipients (control) for 30, 60, 90 and 120 days. Each treatment was replicated four times. After each storage period, we assessed the insect infestation percentage and measured the moisture content, the bulk density, the germination percentage and the electrical conductivity of the grains. The percentage of infestation by C. maculatus for cowpeas stored in silo bags and PET bottles was low and did not exceed 4% during the entire storage period. In contrast, the percentage of infestation by C. maculatus increased in untreated cowpeas over the storage period. The moisture content, bulk density, germination percentage and electrical conductivity of the cowpeas were preserved in both hermetic storage systems that were tested for 120 days. To conclude, the hermetic storage of cowpeas using silo bags and PET bottles can efficiently control C. maculatus and preserve the quality of cowpeas for at least 120 days of storage.     

THE EFFECT OF PROCESSING ON THE TRYPSIN INHIBITOR, HEMAGGLUTININ, TANNIC ACID AND PHYTIC ACID CONTENTS OF SEEDS OF TEN COWPEA VARIETIES

Trypsin inhibitor (TI) and hemagglutinin activities, tannic acid and phytic acid contents were determined in ten varieties of cowpea. The different varieties were subjected to four processes; cooking, soaking, autoclaving and germination. TI and hemagglutinin activities were completely eliminated by cooking and autoclaving, while tannic acid and phytic acid contents were only partly affected. Cooking reduced tannic acid contents by 31.0–47.3%. Soaking for three days decreased TI activity by a mean of 31.2%, hemagglutinin activity by 19.0%, tannic acid by 13.4% and phytic acid by 24.4%. Maximum germination effects on TI and hemagglutinin activities were obtained in 'Westbreed' and 'Kano 1696' where percentage losses amounted to 57.2 and 57.6, respectively. The phytic acid contents of all varieties were greatly reduced by germination.     

Changes in fatty acid,simple sugar,and oligosaccharide content of cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) flour as a result of soaking,boiling, and fermentation with Rhizopus microsporus var. oligosporus

Changes in fatty acid, simple sugar, and oligosaccharide content of cowpea flour as a result of soaking, boiling, and fermentation with Rhizopus microsporus var. oligosporus were investigated. The major fatty acids in flour made from both nonfermented and fermented cowpeas were linoleic, palmitic, and linolenic. With the exception of lower amounts of lauric, palmitic, linoleic, and linolenic acids and slightly higher amounts of lignoceric acid, the remaining fatty acids in flour made from soaked cowpeas were essentially unchanged from the control flour made from cowpeas that were not soaked, boiled or fermented. Soaking followed by boiling generally increased amounts of fatty acids in flour compared to the control. Rhizopus microsporus did not utilize lipid during 24 h of fermentation. Soaking decreased the amount of sucrose and stachyose by 39% and 18.4%, respectively, whereas soaking followed by boiling caused decreases of 58.3% and 49.3%. Complete elimination of sucrose, raffinose, and stachyose was achieved after 15 h of fermentation.     

Varietal differences in the fatty acid composition of oils from cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) and limabean (Phaseolus lunatus)

The fatty acid composition of the extracted oils from ten varieties of cowpea, eighteen varieties of limabean and two of soyabean were determined by gas-liquid chromatography. All the seeds, with the exception of soyabean, were poor sources of oil. The major fatty acids in the cowpea and limabean varieties were linoleic (C_18:2), palmitic (C_16:0) and linolenic (C_18:3) acids. In the soyabeans, linoleic and oleic (C_18:1) acids were the major fatty acids. Traces of gadoleic (C_20:1), erucic (C_22:1) and lignoceric (C_24:0) acids were obtained in Cowpea Kano 1696, Farv-13 and Nigeria B₇ and in limabean TPL 2 and TPL 187. Considerable variability was encountered among the different fatty acids in the different varieties of cowpea and limabean. This is indicated by the differences in fatty acid composition and the high coefficient of variation obtained for ether extract (28·6 and 46·2% in cowpea and limabean, respectively), lauric acid (100 and 50%, respectively), oleic acid (35·1 and 37·7%, respectively), myristic acid (30 and 30·8%, respectively) and behenic acid (39·4 and 30·4%, respectively). Some of these differences may be genetic.     

Insecticidal potential of a synthetic zeolite against the cowpea weevil,Callosobruchus maculatus (Fabricius) (Coleoptera: Bruchidae)

The insecticidal potential of a synthetic zeolite was evaluated against the cowpea weevil, Callosobruchus maculatus (Fabricius). The synthetic zeolite was applied to concrete surfaces at 0, 2.5, 5, 10 and 20 g/m², and the mortality of adults was assessed after 1, 3, 6, 9, 12, 24, 36, 48, and 72 h at 28 °C and 65% r.h. The residual efficacy of zeolite applied at 5 g/m² was evaluated on concrete surfaces at 0, 1, 2, 3, and 4 months post-treatment. Adults of C. maculatus were exposed to cowpeas treated with zeolite at 0, 0.1, 0.5, 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 g/kg. The number of eggs deposited on cowpea kernels and their hatchability were determined after 7 and 14 d, respectively. The cumulative adult mortality was recorded after 1, 2, 3, and 4 d, and adult progeny production after 42 d. The residual efficacy of zeolite on cowpeas was tested at 0, 1, 2 and 3 months after treatment. On concrete, zeolite applied at ≥ 5 g/m² resulted in 100% mortality of C. maculatus adults after 24–72 h of exposure. Zeolite at 5 g/m² exhibited high residual efficacy with 100% mortality of C. maculatus adults after 36 h exposure on treated surfaces for up to 4 months. The mortality of C. maculatus adults exposed to zeolite-treated cowpeas increased with increasing concentration and exposure time. The number of eggs laid by C. maculatus, number of kernels with eggs, and adult progeny production decreased with increasing zeolite concentration. Zeolite applied to cowpeas at 1 g/kg produced 100, 99 and 77% adult mortality at 1, 2, and 3 months post-treatment. Progeny production on zeolite-treated cowpeas was significantly lower than that on untreated cowpeas. These results show that the synthetic zeolite is effective on concrete surfaces and on cowpeas in controlling C. maculatus.