R410A和R22在小管径水平管内冷凝换热特性研究

本文搭建了冷凝换热实验台,对R410A和R22管内冷凝换热系数性能进行对比研究,实验工况为质量流速200~800kg/(m^2·s)、饱和温度40℃、干度0~1、5 mm外径水平光滑铜管,分析了质量流速和干度对管内冷凝换热的影响,并将应用于传统管道的关联式与实验所得数据进行对比。结果表明:冷凝换热表面传热系数与质量流速和干度呈正相关,高干度区域时的冷凝换热表面传热系数增幅显著;M. M. Shah[4]关联式来预测实验数据的效果并不理想,与实际值相比偏差最大可达60%,但是预测低质量流速和低干度区的数据较为理想;当质量流速较小(G=200 kg/(m^2·s))时,R410A的冷凝换热表面传热系数要低于R22;随着质量流速的增大(G=400 kg/(m^2·s)),二者冷凝换热表面传热系数的差距减小;当达到中高质量流速(G=600kg/(m^2·s))时,R410A的冷凝换热表面传热系数与R22的相似;当质量流速继续增大(G=800 kg/(m^2·s))时,R410A的冷凝换热表面传热系数随着干度的增大开始高于R22的。     

R22在矩形微细管内凝结换热的实验研究

通过实验研究了R22在当量直径为0.952 mm水平不锈钢矩形管内的凝结换热过程。实验时的饱和温度为40~50℃、质量流速为200~800 kg/（m2 ? s）、干度为0~1。研究结果表明：R22的凝结换热系数随质量流速和干度的增大而增大,在较高干度区增大趋势更加明显,随饱和温度的增大凝结换热系数减小。然后将实验结果与三种已有换热关联式进行了对比,在与R22相比时发现,在相同实验工况下R152a的凝结换热系数大于R22的凝结换热系数。     

5 mm小管径内R290流动沸腾换热特性

本文对R290在5mm小管径内的流动沸腾换热特性进行实验研究,重点研究热流密度、质量流率及饱和温度对沸腾换热表面传热系数的影响。实验工况为:热流密度10～60 k W/m2、饱和温度15～25℃、质量流率50～200 kg/(m2·s)、干度0. 1～0. 9。结果表明:增加热流密度可实现强化换热,提高表面传热系数,使干涸现象提前发生,并加剧干涸;质量流率在低干度区间对表面传热系数的影响较小,在中干度和高干度区间表面传热系数与质量流率分别呈正相关;当热流密度较低时,在中干度区间,增大饱和温度会使表面传热系数降低;而在较高的热流密度下,增大饱和温度明显引起表面传热系数的上升。     

R32在小管径水平光管内的流动沸腾换热与压降特性试验研究

对R32在?5 mm的水平光管内的流动沸腾换热与压降特性进行试验研究和理论分析。试验的蒸发温度为5℃,质量流量范围为100~500 kg/(m2·s),热流密度为8~24 kW/m2。结果表明,沸腾换热系数在1~8 kW/(m2·K)之间,压降在1~4 kPa/m之间。沸腾换热系数随着干度增大而增大,质量流量的增大和热流密度的增大都有利于换热系数的增加。质量流量的变化对压降的影响比较明显。与R32在?7 mm管内流动传热性能相比,换热系数提高了30%左右。将得到的沸腾换热系数和压降试验数据与多个模型的预测结果进行比较,发现多数换热经验关联式的预测误差较大,仅有Fuji-Nagata关联式的预测值与试验值较为接近;压降的预测误差相对较小。     

微肋管内的换热强化的实验和理论分析

在1根光管、2根微肋管内运行了R1234yf两相流动冷凝换热实验,工况设定中冷凝温度为40℃、43℃、45℃,质量流量为500—900 kg/(m~2·s),换热管进出口处制冷剂干度分别为0.8—0.9、0.2—0.3。实验结果显示:传热系数随冷凝温度的降低、质量流量的增加而增大,且微肋管内传热系数均大于光管内传热系数,其中8°和15°肋片螺旋角微肋管换热强化倍率分别为2.51—2.89、3.11—3.57,均大于其面积增加比;使用关联式对管内传热系数预测时:Cavallini et al关联式对光管内传热系数预测精度最高,其预测误差范围在±8%以内,预测平均误差为0.56%;Cavallini et al关联式和Koyama et al关联式对微肋管内传热系数预测精度较高,其预测误差范围在±25%以内,两者的平均预测误差小于6%。     

R290与R404A在水平管内沸腾换热的压降研究

将R22的两种新型替代工质R290和R404A在光管和内螺纹管中的沸腾换热压降实验结果与Lockhart ＆ Martinelli压降计算关联式预测结果进行了比较,并依据工质R290和R404A在内螺纹管中的实验压降值对Lockhart ＆ Marlinelli压降计算关联式进行了修正。结果表明Lockhart ＆ Martinelli关联式对R404A在光管和内螺纹管的沸腾换热摩擦压降,均有良好的预测精度,平均偏差分别为-11．52％和-17．86％。Lockhart ＆ Martinelli关联式可以较好的预测R290在光管内的沸腾换热摩擦压降,平均偏差为-21．68％;经修正后的Lockhart ＆ Martinelli关联式可以较好的预测R290在在内螺纹管中的沸腾换热摩擦压降,Lockhart ＆ Martinelli关联式乘上修正系数2．06后的修正值与实验值偏差较小,平均偏差为2．37％。研究结果对R290和R404A蒸发器的工程设计及优化具有一定参考意义。     

水平微圆管内R22和R410a凝结压降的实验研究

R410a是一种被广泛看好的R22替代物,研究R410a的凝结压降特性对开发适用此种制冷工质的凝结换热设备有重要意义。搭建了微细尺度凝结压降实验台,实验研究了R22和R410a在内径为0.941mm水平不锈钢圆管内饱和温度为40℃、质量流速为200-1000 kg/m^2.s、干度为0.2-0.8时的凝结压降特性。实验结果表明：凝结压降随着质量流速的增大而增大,在较高干度时更加明显。与R22相比,R410a的凝结压降在较低干度和质量流速时与R22相当,在较高干度和较高质量流速时明显低于R22。     

R134a在微肋管内流动冷凝换热计算关联式的改进

本文选用表面传热系数为评价指标,对外径为6.35 mm的微肋管内R134a两相流动冷凝换热特性进行实验研究,分析了水力工况、测试管结构参数等对管内表面传热系数的影响,还选用Cavallini et al.关联式、Miyara et al.关联式和Oliver et al.关联式对微肋管内表面传热系数进行预测,发现Cavallini et al.关联式对微肋管内换热性能的预测能力最好,关联式预测值与实验值的平均误差、标准误差分别为-21.47%和21.94%。虽然Miyara et al.关联式预测值与实验值的平均误差、标准误差分别为16.21%、30.65%,但两者之间的误差范围为-47.12%～82.32%,说明在部分工况下Miyara et al.关联式对管内换热性能的预测仍存在较大误差。三个关联式中,Oliver et al.关联式的预测能力最差,预测值与实验值之间平均误差高达-54.93%,因此,实验根据现有实验数据对Oliver et al.关联式进行了修正,修正Oliver et al.关联式对管内换热性能的预测能力大大提高,预测值与实验值的平均误差、标准误差分别为-2.37%和10.77%。     

R410A微通道内沸腾换热实验研究

在内径为2 mm的水平不锈钢微通道内对R410A的沸腾换热特性进行了实验研究。质量流率为200~600 kg/(m2·s),热流密度的范围为5~15 k W/m2,干度的范围为0.1~0.8,饱和温度为0℃和5℃。结果显示,当干度大于0.5时,随着热流密度的上升,沸腾换热系数显著上升,其平均增幅分别达到了4.6%和7.7%。当干度小于0.5时,热流密度对换热系数的影响十分微弱。随着质量流率的上升,换热系数均出现了小幅上升,其平均增幅也分别达到了1.1%和2%。而饱和温度对换热系数则几乎没有影响。随后,对可能的机理进行了讨论。实验结果又与Choi K I等以及Ebisu T等在内径分别为1.5 mm,3 mm和6.4mm管道内的研究结果进行了比较。结果显示,在相似工况下,随着管径的下降,当干度小于0.5时,换热系数呈现出上升的趋势,其平均增幅分别达到了18.4%,23.6%和19.5%。     

水平内螺纹管内R410A流动凝结换热的实验研究

本文实验研究了R410A在水平内螺纹管内的流动凝结换热特性,分析了水力工况、测试管结构参数对管内制冷剂侧表面传热系数、压降的影响。结果表明:表面传热系数、压降均随着质量流速的增加、冷凝温度的降低而增大;虽然表面传热系数随着测试水Re的增加而减小,但测试水Re对压降的影响很小。利用单位压降表面传热系数对换热进行综合性能评价时发现,单位压降表面传热系数随着质量流速的增加而减小,随着冷凝温度的增大而增大。将实验数据与经典关联式的预测值进行对比,对于光滑管,除了Akers et al.关联式低估了实验数据,Shah关联式与Thome et al.关联式均高估了实验数据,并且Thome et al.关联式表现出最高的预测精度。而对于内螺纹强化管,Cavallini et al.关联式展现出最高的预测精度,而Koyama et al.关联式与Miyara et al.关联式均低估了实验数据。     

Solubility of R22, R23, R32, R134a,R152a,R125 and R744 refrigerants in water by using equations of state

This paper tries to demonstrate the ability of VPT and CPA equations of state and modified mixing rules for predicting of solubility CHC1F₂ (R22), CHF₃ (R23), CH₂F₂ (R32), C₂H₂F₄ (R134a), C₂H₄F₂ (R152a), C₂HF₅ (R125) and CO₂ (R744) refrigerants in water at different temperatures and pressures. For this purpose, the fugacity of each component in gas and liquid phases is calculated by using VPT and CPA equations of state. Also in this work, the interaction parameters for mixing rules in each mixture are optimized by using two-phase equilibrium data (VL_W). Results of the two-phase flash calculation show good agreement between obtained solubility and the experimental data. The predicted solubility of the selected refrigerants in water agrees with the experimental data with accuracy of about 1.5% and 3.5% by VPT equation of state – modified mixing rule and CPA equation of state – Van der Waals classic mixing rule respectively.     

Viscosity of refrigerants R12, R113, and R114 and mixtures of R12 + R114 at high pressure

New viscosity measurements for the gaseous and supercritical state of the halogenated hydrocarbons R12, R113, and R114 and binary mixtures of R12 + R114 of different compositions are presented. The measurements were carried out at superheated and supercritical temperatures from 30 to 200° C and in the pressure range from 1 to 80 bar. Viscosity was measured with an oscillating-disk viscometer and the data obtained are relative to the viscosity of nitrogen. The estimated accuracy of the measured results is ±0.6%. The results obtained show that, at subcritical temperatures, the pressure effect on viscosity is negative. This anomalous behaviour is investigated in detail in this work. At atmospheric pressure the viscosity of gas mixtures is almost a linear function of their composition. At high pressure, the residual viscosities - ₀ of both the pure components and the mixtures were used to follow a single relationship versus the residual reduced density _r0.Paper presented at the Tenth Symposium on Thermophysical Properties, June 20–23, 1988, Gaithersburg, Maryland, U.S.A.     

Exergetic analysis of a vapour compression refrigeration system with R134a, R143a, R152a, R404A, R407C, R410A, R502 and R507A

This communication deals with the exergetic analysis of a vapour compression refrigeration system with selected refrigerants. The various parameters computed are COP and exergetic efficiency in the system. Effects of degree of condenser temperature, evaporator temperature and sub-cooling of condenser outlet, supper-heating of evaporator out let and effectiveness of vapour liquid heat exchanger are also computed and discussed. In this study, it was found that R134a has the better performance in all respect, whereas R407C refrigerant has poor performance.     

Viscosity of Gaseous R404A, R407C, R410A, and R507

This paper presents new measurements of the viscosity of gaseous R404A (52 wt% R143a, 44 wt% R125, 4 wt% R134a), R407C (23 wt% R32, 25 wt% R125, 52 wt% R143a), R410A (50 wt% R32, 50 wt% R125), and R507 (50 wt% R143a, 50 wt% R125). These mixtures are recommended as substitutes for the refrigerants R22, R502, and R13B1. Measurements were carried out in an oscillating-disk viscometer. The obtained values of the viscosity are relative to the viscosity of nitrogen. The experiments were performed at atmospheric pressure over the temperature range 297 to 403 K. and near the saturation line up to pressures of 0.6 P _crit. The estimated uncertainty of the reported viscosities are ±0.5% for the viscosities at atmospheric pressure and ± 1% along the saturation line, being limited by the accuracy of the available vapor pressure and density data. The experimental viscosities at atmospheric pressure are employed to determine the intermolecular potential parameters, and , which provide the optimum representation of the data with the aid of the extended law of corresponding states developed by Kestin et al. A comparison of the experimental viscosity data with the values calculated by REFPROP, both at atmospheric pressure and along the saturation line, is presented.     

Flow-boiling of R22, R134a, R507, R404A and R410A inside a smooth horizontal tube

Flow boiling heat transfer coefficients of R22, R134a, R507, R404A and R410A inside a smooth horizontal tube (6 mm I.D., 6 m length) were measured at a refrigerant mass flux of about 360 kg/m² s varying the evaporating pressure within the range 3–12 bar, with heat fluxes within the range 11–21 kW/m². The experimental data are discussed in terms of the heat transfer coefficients as a function of the vapour quality. The experimental results clearly show that the heat transfer coefficients of R134a are always higher than those pertaining to R22 (from a minimum of +6 to a maximum of +45%).     

Energy performance evaluation of R1234yf,R1234ze(E), R600a,R290 and R152a as low-GWP R134a alternatives

In 2014, the Directive 517/2014 was introduced by European Parliament to reduce the use of high-GWP greenhouse gases in the European area in order to limit global climate change in accordance with the objectives marked by the EU Research and Innovation programme Horizon 2020. These restrictions affect the large majority of artificial refrigerants among which R134a is included due to its relatively high GWP₁₀₀ (1301). The widely used of R134a in the refrigeration and air conditioning fields reveals the need to identify new low-GWP alternatives. Accordingly, in this work five low-GWP R134a possible choices have been tested and compared in an identical refrigerating facility equipped with a hermetic compressor, under the same operating conditions.The refrigerants used in this analysis are: R290 and R600a (HCs); R134a and R152a (HFCs), and finally, R1234yf and R1234ze(E) (HFOs). All of them have been assayed without changes in the facility, that is, as direct drop-ins. The results obtained from the experimental tests are presented and commented in this work from the energetic point of view.     

Measurements of the surface tension for R290, R600a and R290/R600a mixture

The surface tensions of R290, R600a and R290/R600a mixture have been measured by the modified differential capillary-rise method. Twenty-two data points for R290 and 21 data points for R600a were obtained in the temperature range between 273 K and 354 K, and 43 data points for R290/R600a mixture on three isotherms of 278 K, 300 K and 320 K were obtained. The experimental uncertainties of temperature and surface tension are estimated to be within 20 mK and 0.2 mN m⁻¹, respectively. Surface tension correlations as a function of temperature for pure R290 and R600a were formulated in the temperature range between 253 K and critical temperature, and the correlation as a function of the composition for R290/R600a mixture was discussed at 278 K, 300 K and 320 K. It is found that the surface tension for R290/R600a mixture can be reproduced by the simple mixing rule by mole fraction with the correlations of both pure components.     

Measurements of the thermal conductivity of liquid R32, R124, R125, and R141b

This paper reports measurements of the thermal conductivity of refrigerants R32, R124, R125, and R141b in the liquid phase. The measurements, covering a temperature range from 253 to 334 K and pressure up to 20 MPa, have been performed in a transient hotwire instrument employing two anodized tantalum wires. The uncertainty of the present thermal-conductivity data is estimated to be ±0.5%. The experimental data have been represented by polynomial functions of temperature and pressure for the purposes of interpolation. A comparison with other recent measurements is also included.     

Viscosity of R134a, R32, And R125 at Saturation

This paper reports the results of the measurement of the viscosity of R134a close to the saturation line in the vapor phase. The new measurements were carried out in a vibrating-wire viscometer specially constructed for the purpose, and the results have an accuracy of ±2%. In addition, the opportunity is taken to present a reevaluation of earlier measurements along the saturation line of the viscosity of R32 and R125. Improved equations of state for these fluids are now available and can be employed to generate improved values for the viscosity.