Estimated Per Capita Water Usage Associated with Different Levels of Water Scarcity Risk in Arid and Semiarid Regions

Water scarcity in arid and semi-arid regions is a great economic, environmental and social problem, where the people living in these regions have to use technologies, such as cistern, to ensure water for their survival. Given the difficulties in these regions, this paper aims to propose a methodology to estimate per capita water use for different levels of water shortage risk, ensuring water supply under the conditions of arid and semi-arid regions; and present a case study for the Brazilian semi-arid region. The methodology is based on analysis of spatial and temporal risks of water shortage in the cisterns. Analysis of the temporal risk of water shortage is based on the premise that the cistern is without water for 3 consecutive days with return periods of 5, 10 and 20 years. To ascertain the spatial risk of per capita water use associated with these return periods in hydrologically homogeneous regions, we evaluate the confidence interval associated with the average monthly water use. Thus, the proposed methodology allows to determine the potential water use in each homogeneous region. For the Brazilian semiarid region it is possible to identify the areas where local population has a greater restriction on the access to water (central semiarid region) and areas where there is greater water availability (north and south of the semi-arid). This variation of water availability allows to adapt management measures accounting for the ground conditions of each location, in order to meet the water needs of the local population.     

On the Barriers to Adaption to Less Water under Climate Change: Policy Choices in Mediterranean Countries

Barriers and constraints to adapting water resources management to climate change in the Mediterranean region are analysed in this paper. First, we analysed the risks to the water resources sector derived from climate change. We then identified the main objective of water adaptation measures: ensuring there is enough water for food, for people, and for ecosystems. This implies visions about availability - being sufficient water -, accessibility - both physical and economic access -, and adequacy - being safe for ecosystems and human consumption. A portfolio of local and collective actions to adapt water management for agriculture to climate change in Mediterranean countries is presented. Adaptation strategies included improved efficiency, optimisation of governance, enhancement of participation, development of risk-based choices, and economic instruments. Finally, the paper categorised the constraints to implement the measures, give specific examples about these issues and also quantify their impact. When considering constraints and opportunities to implement these water management practices, any environmental policy regulating their adoption should be based on recommending the use of extension and training to local actors on the application of the practices.     

Managing Water Resources to Adapt to Climate Change: Facing Uncertainty and Scarcity in a Changing Context

Some of the most significant future efforts in water resources management will be devoted to climate change adaptation. Climate change adaptation is of special concern in regions facing water scarcity where water management is already challenged by many problems. This paper is a review of current knowledge on approaches to address water issues under uncertainty in water-scarce regions, identifying specific policy actions for climate change adaptation. The focus is on regions, like the Mediterranean, California or Australia, where water resources are well developed and have become an essential part of socioeconomic activities but are currently facing significant challenges due to their dependence on water availability to maintain living standards. We provide an overview of the expected impacts of climate change on water resources and discuss management responses based on peer-reviewed studies published over the past three decades. The adaptation choices cover a wide range of options, from adaptive demand management to utilization of remaining marginal water sources. The intensification of successful measures already applied in the past is still viewed as a solution to reduce climate impacts. However, the emphasis is progressively being placed on sustainability, developing and extending the water management paradigm to include not only technical and economic criteria, but also ecological and social considerations.     

Drought Management Plans in the European Union. The Case of Spain

Water is a strategic resource for the economic, social and environmental development. However, water scarcity and droughts are current challenges to this growth, as it is reflected in European Union (EU) water policies, and in national and regional growing initiatives. In addition, these water related issues could worsen by climate change effects, adding pressure to already water stressed areas. This paper presents a general overview of drought management in the European Union, reviews scientific and technical advances, the status of implementation of policy tools and focuses on drought management plans. It analyses the specific case of Spain, a country characterised by presenting a high irregularity in temporal and spatial distribution of water resources and numerous areas affected by water scarcity and droughts. Details are presented on the National Drought Indicator System and drought management plans approved in 2007 in Spain, which represent strategic tools with positive results in drought warning and impact mitigation respectively.     

Assessment of Future Water Scarcity at Different Spatial and Temporal Scales of the Brahmaputra River Basin

Climate change is one of the main driving forces that affect both the temporal and spatial variability of water availability. Besides climatic change, current demographic trends, economic development and related land use changes have direct impact on increasing demand for freshwater resources. Taken together, the net effect of these supply and demand changes has led to a growing water scarcity in major international river basins. The Brahmaputra River Basin is one of the most vulnerable areas in the world, as it is subject to combined effect of climate change and development pressures. A robust assessment of water scarcity considering both climatic and socio-economic changes is therefore vital for policy makers of the basin. In this study, we analyze future water scarcity of the Brahmaputra Basin in a geographically and temporally detailed manner, incorporating several novel approaches: (i) the application of consistent set of scenarios to estimate future water scarcity; (ii) estimation of water demand in terms of both water withdrawals and consumptive water use; (iii) comparison of water demand and availability on different temporal scales i.e., yearly, seasonal and monthly rather than only annual basis. (iv) assessment of groundwater recharge affected by climate change together with future demands for groundwater abstraction. Although the Brahmaputra Basin is one of the water abundant regions of the world, our analysis illustrates that during dry season water scarcity for the Basin will become more severe in the coming decades, which requires special attention to the decision makers of the authority.     

Eco-political Decision-making and Confidence-building Measures in the Development of International Rivers

One of the most important resources for socioeconomic development in arid and semi-arid countries is water, and its scarcity in the Middle East has been a key factor in war and peace-making.As water shortages occur and full utilization is reached, water policies tend to be framed more and more in zero-sum terms, adding to the probability of discord. The aim of this study is to provide some innovative technological answers to the fundamental questions of how to sustain the water supply without causing diverse effects on the ecosystem both now and for the 21st century. This paper evaluates several non-conventional approaches highlighting the economic and environmental gains of co-generation applications that would have the potential to resolve this persistent problem, and thus contribute towards peace among the water users in the Middle East. Priority of development projects including viability of (1) the strategic use of such resources as brackish water, seawater and reclaimed wastewater, and (2) the transboundary transport of water is preliminarily evaluated by taking into account the four feasibility elements 'technical', 'environment', 'economy' and 'politics'. Water conservation and management including water pricing scenarios are essential confidence-building measures to manage the water resources in the region. In this circumstance, non-conventional strategic alternatives including desalination and reuse of treated wastewater will become significantly important in water resources development to supply new additional fresh waters in the 21st century.     

区域水资源利用压力分析评价

水资源利用压力指数可用来衡量一个区域的水资源相对稀缺性,并判断水资源是否成为社会经济发展的制约因素.基于"压力-状态-响应"概念模型在经济、环境、生态综合评价指标体系中的应用,从人口数量压力、水资源数量压力、水环境压力、水资源技术压力、水资源用水管理压力的角度,建立了水资源利用压力指标体系.通过对全国223个地市水资源利用压力的计算分析,该指标体系定量反映了水资源与人口、经济、环境之间的协调关系,验证了所构建的水资源利用压力指标的合理性,为区域水资源可持续利用提供理论参考.     

A Metric Model on Identifying the National Water Scarcity Management Ability

Our planet is getting thirstier and thirstier. Water scarcity has become an increasingly hard but urgent problem. The world's water situation engenders little optimism. About one quarter of the world's population is experiencing water scarcity. Moreover, water resources are unevenly distributed and extremely scarce in Africa and the Middle East. Water scarcity further incurs many international issues such as international conflicts, environmental refugees and disease caused by water pollution, which have made a more unstable world. To make contributions to solve the water problems, this study proposed a metric model to identify the ability of each country to manage water scarcity, and offered solutions to a country considered water over-loaded. In this paper, we developed our metric, Total Scarcity Metric, and divided it into Physical Scarcity Metric ( affected by environmental factors and population) and Economic Scarcity Metric ( affected by social factors other than population) by the two causes of water scarcity. This paper made some adjustments to an indicator we found widely-used in the literatures, and determine Physical Scarcity Metric based on it. Based on that result, Pakistan was chose as a sample region for further analysis, and Pakistan still has a long way to go. This model will prove to be advantageous for a region’s authoritative figures to consult with when in pursuit of obtaining a higher level of water resources allocation. It also can serve as a public rationale to support certain superficially incomprehensive judgments made by the administration.     

Water Scarcity Impacts and Potential Conflicts in the MENA Region

Abstract

The failure of water resources to meet the basic requirements of society has a host of social, economic, environmental, and political impacts. This paper addresses those impacts with particular reference to the region of the Middle East and North Africa (MENA). Water scarcity is a manmade phenomenon brought about by the increasing demands of the population for water. The imbalance in the population-water resources equation strains society and has an adverse impact on domestic hygiene, public health, and cost of domestic water, and could impart political problems as serious as bringing down governments. On the social side, water scarcity adversely impacts job opportunities, farm incomes, credibility and reliability of agricultural exports, and the ability of the vulnerable to meet the cost of domestic water. Economically, the adverse impact is displayed in the loss of production of goods, especially agricultural goods, the loss of working hours because of the hardships society faces as a result of water scarcity. The impacts of water scarcity on regional stability are addressed with reference to water in the Middle East Peace Process. Finally, the serious impacts of conflicts and potential water wars are discussed. Water, energy, and environment are triplets. The eventual solution to water scarcity lies in the invention of an energy generating technology that renders the cost of power affordable by societies and that does not impart serious environmental problems.     

Political and Professional Agency Entrapment: An Agenda for Urban Water Research

The many societal benefits provided by traditional, centralised urban water servicing models are being re-examined following recent extreme weather events, climate uncertainty and other variable socio-technical trends. Total water cycle management offers a more flexible and resilient approach to urban water management, however, transformative change in the sector is difficult. A growing number of scholars have identified that the urban water sector is locked-in to the current large-scale, centralised infrastructure model and suggest the sector is unable to accommodate new technologies and management approaches beyond niche projects. Based on extensive socio-institutional research and example cases from Australian and United Kingdom experiences managing urban water under pressures such as modern environmentalism, prolonged water scarcity and sewerage overflows, this paper provides a commentary on common factors exhibited in both countries related to technological path dependency. Three key factors promoting this pathway: political risk, professional agency fear and a lack of a hybrid governance approach are discussed and a future scholarly research agenda is presented.     

水贫乏指数的概念及其在中国主要流域的初步应用

介绍了水贫乏指数WPI(Water Poverty Index)的概念及其计算方法,指出WPI是一种可以定量评价国家或地区间相对缺水程度的综合性指标。该指标考虑了资源、工程、管理、经济、环境等多方面因素,具体包括5个要素：即潜在水资源状况、供水设施状况、利用能力、使用效率和环境状况。本文将改进的WPI均衡计算方法应用于我国主要流域,结果表明,辽河、海河、淮河、黄河流域的缺水程度严重,长江和珠江流域的缺水程度相对较低,与我国水资源的客观状况基本相符,基本反映了我国各大流域间的相对缺水现状及相应的水资源管理水平。最后,依据WPI各要素的雷达图,初步分析了导致各流域缺水的主要原因和威胁其水资源安全的主要因素。另外,文中对 WPI方法的适用性和有待改进之处也进行了讨论。     

A Market Solution for the Israeli-Palestinian Water Dispute

The perceived shortage of water within Israel and the Palestinian authority raises the need to explore the ways and means to ameliorate existing and expected water scarcity. This study stresses the need for demand management and market allocation that will shift water from agriculture to other uses. Since the real price of water in this region is too high, water should not serve as input for many of the crops that are currently grown by the local population. The hidden and visible subsidies that are currently supporting the prices of water would be better used to create substituting employment to shift more farmers away from agricultural occupations. Such policy will ease the shortage of water that is created by policies and behavior that were aimed indirectly, to increase the use of water.     

Water Management in the Mediterranean Region: Concepts and Policies

The Mediterranean Region exhibits significant contrasts in its demographic and hydrologic features that have shaped the water management policies of the Mediterranean countries. Although awareness is raising with respect to sustainable water management, the extent to which it is applied in practice is debatable. Use conflicts and non-renewable water extraction in water scarce part of the region like the Southern and Eastern rim countries are exposed as overriding management issues. Furthermore climatic variations are superimposed on natural hydro-stress and water dependency on external resources in most of the cases. Decision-making process needs measurable, comparable and reliable tools in order to be able to make trade-offs when facing conflicting issues. Indicators are valuable tools for understanding the trends and challenges encountered in water resources management. The Contracting Parties to the Barcelona Convention adopted, in November 2005, the Mediterranean Strategy for Sustainable Development (MSSD). Integrated water resources and demand management constitute the first priority among the range of actions of the adopted strategy. Increasing efficiency by reducing losses and wasteful use is expected to help stabilise water demand in the Southern and Eastern part of the Mediterranean countries. In this paper, an assessment of the existing water management concepts and policies in Mediterranean countries will be presented based on sustainable development indicators related to water management.     

Multi-criteria Decision Analysis (MCDA) for Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) in the Lake Poopo Basin, Bolivia

Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) is a relatively new approach in Bolivia. However, it is now generally accepted that this approach needs to be established in order to find sustainable solutions for development and is actively promoted by the Water Ministry, especially in environmentally fragile regions, such as the Lake Poopo basin. The Lake Poopo basin is one of the poorest regions in the Bolivian Altiplano. It is confronted with severe water scarcity during the dry season, leading to low water quality, a high water-poverty index and low values of the watershed sustainability index. Furthermore, salinization and environmental degradation of soil and water are forcing people to migrate to urban areas. These are some of the factors underlying an ever-increasing complexity in integrated water resources management in the region. This paper proposes and develops a Multi-criteria Decision Analysis (MCDA) in the Lake Poopo basin, based on economic, social and environmental criteria in an uncertain decision environment in order to support stakeholders in managing their water resources. Saaty’s analytical hierarchy process (AHP) theory is applied here to solve the MCDA and to identify the alternatives using the highest expected utility value. The paper identifies the best solutions for existing conflicts, while promoting interaction with stakeholders and instruments in order to reach a sustainable strategy for water resources management in this water-scarce region.     

Clarifying Regional Water Scarcity in Agriculture based on the Theory of Blue,Green and Grey Water Footprints

Water scarcity mitigation in regional agricultural systems contributes to water use efficiency improvement. Blue (WSI_blue), green (WSI_green) and grey (WSI_grey) water scarcity indices were proposed to describe various water stresses in detail and further determine the type of regional water scarcity. WSI_blue and WSI_green reveal resource-based water scarcities, and WSI_grey characterizes environment-based water shortages. Provincial water scarcity indices of China from 2000–2014 were calculated and analyzed in the current paper. The results indicated that the national WSI, WSI_grey, WSI_blue and WSI_green values are 0.84, 0.16, 0.39 and 0.89, respectively. China is facing a high water stress, manifested as a resource-based water shortage. Northwest and Northeast China experience a severe water quantity scarcity with high WSI_blue and WSI_green values, and the central and eastern regions exhibit a high WSI_grey value. Eastern China faces both serious resource-based and environmental water shortages. The constructed blue, green and grey water scarcity indices compensate for the inability of the existing index to determine the type of water shortage and indicate the reason for water scarcity. They also provide a targeted guiding significance for the formulation of effective measures to improve agricultural water resource management and alleviate regional water scarcity.

     

Effectiveness of Water Management in Europe in the 21st Century

Research on water scarcity and water management in Europe has accelerated significantly in the past two decades, mainly as a result of growing water demand for agricultural, industrial, and municipal uses. Most research studies in the field evaluate water use and management by means of static indicators that depict a one-time value for a given time period (e.g., one year). This paper suggests a dynamic indicator measuring product (here: water) generational dematerialization. The indicator presents a comprehensive approach for evaluating water resources and water management strategies, as it represents a function of both resource use changes and population changes occurring simultaneously and over time. To accentuate the benefits of this dynamic indicator over static indicators as well as its practical applicability for decision-making support, the paper evaluates water management in Europe based on the total water use between 2001 and 2013. The results show that water management estimated cumulatively for the analyzed European countries has been effective for the last 13 years, though significant regional variations have been found. The research and the dynamic water generational dematerialization indicator can be helpful with addressing regional and national water deficit problems and designing sustainable water management strategies in the mid- and long-run.     

On the Marketisation of Water: Evidence from the Murray-Darling Basin,Australia

Policy makers will increasingly have to turn to water demand management in the future to respond to greater water scarcity. Water markets have long been promoted as one of the most efficient ways to reallocate water by economists, but have also been subject to much criticism due to their possible social, economic and environmental impacts. We engage with common critical perceptions of water markets by presenting first-hand evidence of their effects in the Murray-Darling Basin (MDB), Australia. Water markets in the MDB, as developed within an appropriate institutional framework and coupled with comprehensive water planning, have: (1) helped deliver improved environmental outcomes; (2) assisted irrigators’ adaptation responses to climate risks, such as drought; (3) increased the gross valued added of farming; and (4) been regulated in ways to meet social goals. If water markets are embedded within fair and effective meta-governance and property right structures, the potential exists for marketisation to increase efficiency, promote fairness in terms of initial water allocations, and to improve environmental outcomes.     

Analysis of treated wastewater reuse potential for irrigation in Sicily

In Mediterranean countries, water shortage is becoming a problem of high concern affecting the local economy, mostly based on agriculture. The problem is not only the scarcity of water in terms of average per capita, but the high cost to make water available at the right place, at the right time with the required quality. In these cases, an integrated approach for water resources management including wastewater is required. The management should also include treated wastewater (TWW) reclamation and reuse, especially for agricultural irrigation. In Italy, TWW reuse is regulated by a quite restrictive approach (Ministry Decree, M.D. 185/03), especially for some chemical compounds and microbiological parameters. The aim of the paper is the evaluation of TWW reuse potential in Sicily. A Geographic Information System (GIS) was built at regional level to quantify and locate the available TWW volumes. In particular, the characteristics of wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) were integrated, through the GIS, with data on irrigation district areas. Moreover, in order to evaluate the Italian approach for reuse practice in agriculture, the water quality of different TWW effluents was analysed on the basis of both the Italian standards and the WHO guidelines.     

Strategic water planning for south east England: preparing for proposed development.

The South East of England has one of the fastest growing and economically active populations in Europe, with associated significant pressures from development, particularly housing and transport. Sustainable water management has been identified as a major issue for future development of the region. The South East England Regional Assembly and the Environment Agency have carried out a study to investigate the potential constraints that flood risk, water resources, and water quality may pose on development. The study aims to improve understanding in order to inform the revision of regional planning polices and suggest practical guidance for local authorities to implement such policies. Wide technical consultation was carried out with the Environment Agency, local planning authorities and development agencies. Threshold Assessment was investigated as a technique to assess the potential impacts on the environment of various levels of forecast growth within selected parts of the region. Initial results indicate the need for more strategic and better integrated planning which recognises environmental and development boundaries.     

Optimal Water Resources Management: Case of Lower Litani River, Lebanon

The pressures of human population and patterns of development frequently jeopardize the integrity of river systems worldwide. An integrated approach to water resources management is essential, particularly in developing countries. This study presents the results of the water resources optimization conducted for the Lower Litani River Basin in Lebanon. The overall aim of the project is to develop, test, and critically evaluate an innovative approach to water resources management in the Mediterranean region. The method explores the ways in which multiple environmental, economic, and social benefits can be achieved through integrated management of water resources. The Water Resources Model was utilized to assess the efficiency of the baseline model scenario and for the optimization process of the different scenarios of the Litani Lower Basin. Strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats analysis was applied in order to derive the objectives and constraints. Results revealed that the potential retained scenarios aim at decreasing water consumption and demand, losses, and return flow. These scenarios mainly include the shift to drip irrigation, awareness campaigns, and losses control in domestic supply pipes. Other retained scenarios having a higher shortfall rely on the use of the Channel concrete lining to decrease losses and return flow, in addition to the awareness campaigns in both domestic and irrigation sectors, and less consumptive/more efficient irrigation methods such as sprinkler and drip irrigation at variable application percentages. Hence, most of the interventions or measures proposed are generally not costly and can be implemented.