Effects of electronic performance monitoring on job design and worker stress: Results of two studies

This article discusses empirical evidence regarding the effect of electronic performance monitoring on job design and stress. It was assumed that electronic performance monitoring would have both direct and indirect effects on worker stress (Carayon, 1993). Electronic performance monitoring could indirectly affect worker stress because of its influence on job design. Data from two studies show that electronic performance monitoring seems to affect job design and worker stress. In the first study, monitored employees reported different levels of job design, but not of worker stress, as compared to nonmonitored employees. In the second study, monitored employees reported more negative perceptions of their working conditions and more stress than nonmonitored employees. Specific characteristics of electronic performance monitoring, such as completeness and comparison of ratings among coworkers, were found to be related to job design and worker stress. The results tend to confirm that EPM has an indirect effect on worker stress via job design.     

Women at Work—Preface

Abstract

A model to look at various job components that affect individual well-being and health was developed drawing from the job design and job stress literature. Briefly stated, the model proposes job control to be a primary causal determinant of the stress outcomes. The effects of perceived demands, job content, and career/future concerns were hypothesized to influence the stress outcomes only to the extent of their influence on job control. This was tested in a population of government office employees in various clerical, professional, and managerial jobs all of which involve the use of computers. Results indicated that job control was not a crucial determinant of the stress outcomes, that job demands and career/future concerns were consistent determinants of the stress outcomes, and that job content, demands, and career/future concerns did not influence the stress outcomes through job control as described by the proposed model. The differentiation of job control levels to define specific relationships with stress outcomes and other job elements was shown to be useful because different levels of job control were associated with different stress outcomes and job elements.     

Duration,frequency, and diversity of knowledge contribution: Differential effects of job characteristics

Although knowledge repositories typically seek to capture the knowledge employees acquire from working on their jobs, little consideration has been given to the influence of job characteristics. This study proposes a job knowledge contribution model that details the influence of different job characteristics on the duration, frequency, and diversity of knowledge contribution through their influences on different knowledge characteristics. The model was assessed with a survey of 255 employees working in knowledge-intensive industries. Identifying the knowledge mechanisms explaining the impact of job characteristics has implications for the theoretical development of knowledge contribution and indicates new directions for research.     

Stress, computer-based work monitoring and measurement systems: a conceptual overview

The design and implementation of computer-based work monitoring systems can result in changes in the organization, job and task. Electronic performance monitoring (EPM) systems are one type of change based on principles of work simplification and work rationalization. In this new work arrangement, control and coordination functions are allocated to the computer. The supervisor becomes a monitor of information and primarily provides negative performance feedback to the employee. The employee is constrained in his/her ability to use either job resources or social resources to meet the greater demands resulting from the system controlling the pace of work. It is proposed that these work arrangements provoke stress responses in employees that can result in short-term illness and potentially long-term changes in health status. Information enriched work environments are proposed as an alternative. These new work arrangements could improve job resources and social resources to manage job demands and reduce the potentially damaging stress responses. To provide a frame of reference we focus on the impact of EPM systems on the organizational and job elements involved in provoking individual stress responses. The impact of EPM systems on individual health is described using a psychosocial stress framework. Ergonomics interventions discussed include: participation in the design process; allocation of control and coordination functions between the computer and the employee; development of feedback systems; and work measurement and the development of performance appraisal systems.     

Effect of job demands and social support on worker stress: a study of VDT users

This study examined the effect of job demands (quantitative workload and computer-related problems) and social support (supervisor and co-worker support) on stress of VDT users. A survey questionnaire was administered to employees of three public service organizations. Two-hundred and sixty-two office workers participated in this study. Results showed that job demands (quantitative workload and computer-related problems) had a direct effect on psychological complaints of VDT users. On the other hand, co-worker support did not affect worker stress. Supervisor support was a buffer against worker stress both in the low and high job demands conditions. However, supervisor support did not have any interactive buffering effect on the relationship between job demands and worker stress.     

Job design,employment practices and well-being: a systematic review of intervention studies

Abstract

There is inconsistent evidence that deliberate attempts to improve job design realise improvements in well-being. We investigated the role of other employment practices, either as instruments for job redesign or as instruments that augment job redesign. Our primary outcome was well-being. Where studies also assessed performance, we considered performance as an outcome. We reviewed 33 intervention studies. We found that well-being and performance may be improved by: training workers to improve their own jobs; training coupled with job redesign; and system wide approaches that simultaneously enhance job design and a range of other employment practices. We found insufficient evidence to make any firm conclusions concerning the effects of training managers in job redesign and that participatory approaches to improving job design have mixed effects. Successful implementation of interventions was associated with worker involvement and engagement with interventions, managerial commitment to interventions and integration of interventions with other organisational systems.

Practitioner Summary: Improvements in well-being and performance may be associated with system-wide approaches that simultaneously enhance job design, introduce a range of other employment practices and focus on worker welfare. Training may have a role in initiating job redesign or augmenting the effects of job design on well-being.     

Success and failure in implementing changes in job design

This paper discusses some of the factors which determine whether proposals for changes in job design are implemented or not and, if they are, whether they are likely to be successful. It takes a systems approach in that in the real world there are a number of interdependent factors and a change in any one will affect others. Failure to consider the effects of changes of a traditional ergonomic type on individual psychological needs or wider ranging job design proposals on payments, management style, etc. will lead to failure.

Important factors to consider are the attitudes and values of top management, the involvement of those whose jobs are being changed, the tradition of work organization and the expectations of the employees. The aim must be to allow the individual worker at any level the greatest possible choice in how he does his job.

Comment is made on the education of economists, the problems of performance measurement and the evaluation of change.     

New Information Technologies,Job Profiles,and External Workload as Predictors of Subjectively Experienced Stress and Dissatisfaction at Work

Implementation cycles of information technologies in modern workplaces have become shorter, and employees have to constantly adapt to changing work situations. Presented here are preliminary results from a comprehensive research project. The 2nd Vienna Implementation Study, which investigated the effects on workers of continuous implementations, that is, the implementations of new information technologies on workplaces already equipped with computers. In a longitudinal research design, strain and dissatisfaction of 466 employees in 10 different companies are investigated. In each company, an implementation of a new information technology occurs during a specified time period. Seven measurements are taken over a 22-month period. Contextual factors postulated to moderate employee reactions to the new information technology include the following: type of implementation, implementation style (e.g., implementation management, participation) job profiles, external workload of employees, and personality factors. Preliminary analyses of the first two measurements of subjectively experienced stress and dissatisfaction (2 subscales representing strain and job satisfaction) in 9 companies are presented here. Compared to a control sample (the first 2 measurements in companies in which the implementation has not occurred), employees in the implementation sample had an increase in subjectively experienced stress and no changes in dissatisfaction shortly after the implementation. Both preimplementation values and changes in subjectively experienced stress and dissatisfaction seemed to be highly influenced by contextual factors at an organizational level. Regarding job characteristics (decision latitude) and external workload (e.g., family, children, and household responsibilities), employees with low decision latitude at their workplaces and a high external workload showed the strongest increases in subjectively experienced stress after the implementation....     

Electronic performance monitoring: A review of research issues

The research literature on electronic performance monitoring (EPM) has attributed different outcomes to monitoring, including improved worker performance, reduced job satisfaction and increased job stress. A variety of research methods (case study, cross-sectional and laboratory designs) has been utilized to study these effects of EPM. In this paper, these methods are reviewed, and the results of several studies are summarized. The existing literature often does not clearly specify what is meant by monitoring. Future research on outcomes associated with monitoring should describe carefully the type of monitoring technology and system used - who does the monitoring, when it is done, and what aspect of performance is monitored. It is further suggested that future EPM research should describe in greater detail the work environment, the job tasks, and the organizational climate of monitored and non-monitored workers to determine whether these groups are comparable with respect to these factors, and that observed outcomes are not misattributed to EPM.     

The effects of electronic performance monitoring on stress: Locus of control as a moderator variable

In recent years, there has been a substantial increase in the number of companies using electronic performance monitoring (EPM) systems to evaluate their employees. Data from several case studies suggest that employees who are monitored using EPM experience more stress than employees who are monitored by other means. However, it is difficult to draw firm conclusions from this research, because organizations tend to introduce other programs at the same time as EPM systems are installed. Additionally, little existing research examines the role that employee characteristics play in determinigg EPM's impact. The current study represents an attempt to address these issues. Laboratory subjects worked on two relatively simple computerized tasks and were told either that their work would be monitored via a supervisory computer networked to their terminal, or that their work would not be observed. All other work climate variables were held constant. After completing the tasks, subjects' locus of control and perceived stress were measured. Locus of control was found to moderate the relationship between EPM and stress. Internals felt more stress when their work was electronically monitored. In contrast, externals felt more stress when their work was not monitored. These findings are interpreted using a person-environment fit framework.     

Psychological Mood State,Psychosocial Aspects of Work,and Musculoskeletal Discomfort in Intensive Video Display Terminal (VDT) Work

The relation between psychological mood state, psychosocial aspects of work, and musculoskeletal discomfort was examined using a questionnaire survey of 505 office employees whose jobs required intensive use of video display terminals. Logistic and linear regression analyses demonstrated significant relations between the psychological mood state of stress and musculoskeletal discomfort. Linear regression analysis showed a significant relation between some psychosocial aspects of work and the psychological mood state of stress. The results suggest that an individual's psychological state and characteristics of jobs have important relations to musculoskeletal health. The cross-sectional study design precluded interpretation regarding the temporal nature of these relations.     

Mind your E-manners: Impact of cyber incivility on employees’ work attitude and behavior

We examined cyber incivility in the workplace of Singapore and also examined its impact on employee job satisfaction, organizational commitment, quit intention, and workplace deviance. Data were collected from 192 employees. Results of the survey showed that male supervisors engaged in active forms of cyber incivility while female supervisors engaged in passive cyber incivility. Regression analyses also showed that cyber incivility was negatively related to employees’ job satisfaction and organizational commitment. Employees who experienced cyber incivility were also more likely to quit their jobs or engaged in deviant behavior against their organization. Thus, cyber incivility has negative consequences on both individuals and organizations. Consequently, it is important that firms educate employees and have appropriate policies to discourage cyber incivility.     

“卓越计划”软件工程本科毕业生的跟踪分析

为应对毕业生就业难与软件企业人才招聘难的两难局面,对我院按照"卓越工程师培养计划"培养的第一批本科应届生展开了基于电子问卷的跟踪调查。通过分析学生就业情况及其所在单位需求情况,以及毕业生的就业反馈,讨论研究了现有培养方案、教学体系和课程改革存在的问题与不足,以期为后续进一步深入实施"卓越工程师培养计划"提供帮助。     

Psychosocial aspects of working with video display terminals (VDTs) and employee physical and mental health

Psychosocial aspects of using video display terminals (VDTs) have been recognized as contributors to employees' mental and physical health problems for more than 15 years. Yet, little has been done by employers to change work organization conditions to improve the psychosocial work environment of VDT users. Thus, psychosocial aspects of work are emerging as one of the biggest problems for VDT users in the late 1990s. This paper explores how psychosocial aspects of VDT work are related to job stress, and their consequences for mental and physical health. Using the research literature, it defines various aspects of work organization and job design that have been shown to be related to VDT users' ill-health. Some of the important work design aspects uncovered include a lack of employee skill use, monotonous tasks, high job demands and work pressure, a lack of control over the job, poor supervisory relations, fear of job loss, and unreliable technology. These are the same job stressors that have been defined as problematic for a variety of blue collar jobs in previous research. Work organization improvements for healthier VDT jobs are proposed. These include organizational support, employee participation, improved task content, increased job control, reasonable production standards, career development, enhanced peer socialization, and improved workstation ergonomics. These organizational improvements are derived from a more detailed organizational strategy for job stress reduction. A model of job redesign through proper ‘balancing’ of work organization features is discussed.     

The Relationships among Internal Marketing,Job Satisfaction,Relationship Marketing,Customer Orientation,and Organizational Performance: An Empirical Study of TFT‐LCD Companies in Taiwan

The thin film technology liquid‐crystal displays (TFT‐LCD) industry has become one of the main industries in Taiwan. In this research, we take Taiwanese TFT‐LCD industrial companies as the research objects and try to identify the interrelationships among internal marketing, job satisfaction, relationship marketing, customer orientation, and organizational performance. Although these companies are classified as part of the manufacturing industry, it is suggested that their service components could be the focus of greater attention to enhance the success of their business operations. Analytical results indicate that internal marketing, job satisfaction, and customer orientation have significant influences on relationship marketing as well as the organizational performance of TFT‐LCD manufacturing companies. Therefore, Taiwan TFT‐LCD manufacturing companies need to implement relationship marketing continuously, increase employee job satisfaction, and inspire employees to become more customer oriented in order to increase productivity. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Social media at work: The roles of job satisfaction,employment status,and Facebook use with co-workers

Limited research has studied workplace satisfaction in a computer-mediated context, particularly with the use of social media. Based on an analysis of an online survey of working adults (N = 512) in various companies and organizations in a metropolitan area in Southern California, we tested the relationships among time spent on Facebook interacting with co-workers, employment status, and job satisfaction. Results show that an employee's satisfaction at work is positively associated with the amount of time they spend on Facebook interacting with co-workers. Contrary to our initial predictions, results to the second and third hypotheses revealed that part time employees reported having spent the highest amount of time on Facebook with their co-workers, and contract employees reported the highest degree of job satisfaction at work. Results have implications for Facebook as a strategic platform for promoting employee satisfaction at work, and Facebook a social network/ing platform for part time employees seeking further social integration and professional connection.     

The effects and moderators of cyber-loafing controls: an empirical study of Chinese public servants

Cyber-loafing—using the internet for non-work purposes during work time—can lower employee productivity and expose organizations to security risks. Organizations need to control this type of behavior. We studied two control methods: internet use policies and electronic monitoring. We empirically investigated the effectiveness of these two methods and how their effectiveness is influenced by the employees’ individual differences. Based on the data collected from 209 Chinese public servants, we found that both methods can significantly lower employees’ cyber-loafing intentions. Additionally, an internet use policy is more effective for employees with a high level of self-esteem than for those with a low level of self-esteem, whereas electronic monitoring is more effective for employees with a high level of job satisfaction than for those with a low level of job satisfaction. This study advances the theoretical understanding of methods for the control of cyber-loafing and has practical implications for the mitigation of its negative effects.     

Characteristics of job rotation in the Midwest US manufacturing sector

Job rotation has been advocated as a suitable intervention to control work-related musculoskeletal disorders. However, little is known regarding the prevalence of job rotation, methods used to identify jobs for rotation or the benefits or limitations of job rotation. A web-based questionnaire was developed to survey job rotation practices from Midwest US manufacturing companies. Results indicated that 42.7% of the companies contacted used job rotation, where the median time for which they had used job rotation was 5 years. Job rotation was used mainly to reduce exposure to risk factors for work-related injuries and to reduce work related injuries, whereas supervisor decisions and ergonomic analyses were used to select jobs for the rotation scheme. Major limitations to successful implementation of job rotation included rotation of individuals with medical restrictions, decreased product quality and lack of jobs to rotate to. These findings suggest that further study is needed to determine if exposure to risk factors is reduced through current efforts.     

Characteristics of job rotation in the Midwest US manufacturing sector

Job rotation has been advocated as a suitable intervention to control work-related musculoskeletal disorders. However, little is known regarding the prevalence of job rotation, methods used to identify jobs for rotation or the benefits or limitations of job rotation. A web-based questionnaire was developed to survey job rotation practices from Midwest US manufacturing companies. Results indicated that 42.7% of the companies contacted used job rotation, where the median time for which they had used job rotation was 5 years. Job rotation was used mainly to reduce exposure to risk factors for work-related injuries and to reduce work related injuries, whereas supervisor decisions and ergonomic analyses were used to select jobs for the rotation scheme. Major limitations to successful implementation of job rotation included rotation of individuals with medical restrictions, decreased product quality and lack of jobs to rotate to. These findings suggest that further study is needed to determine if exposure to risk factors is reduced through current efforts.