欧洲可持续能源政策及对我国的启示

欧洲能源政策的目标是力求在不增加能源供应总量的前提下保持经济持续发展,保障能源供应安全、加强环境保护和提高经济竞争力。在管理体制上建立了负责能源政策研究、制订、实施和监督的专门机构。最重要的措施是节能和发展可再生能源,重点领域包括建筑节能、企业节能、热电联产和可再生能源。欧洲可持续能源政策对我国的能源发展有一定借鉴意义,我们的能源政策应在保障满足经济和社会发展需要的同时,提高能源效率,发展清洁能源,加强能源与环境的协调,并在体制上为可持续能源战略的实施消除障碍。另外,还应考虑建立清洁能源基金等措施为可持续能源政策的实施提供资金保障。     

How do energy & environmental policy goals and instruments affect electricity demand? A framework for the analysis

Several measures in the environment and energy realms are currently being implemented in the EU and its Member States. Three of these instruments, with an impact on the electricity market, are demand side management activities, promotion of electricity from renewable energy sources and measures aimed at the mitigation of Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions. The objective of this paper is to analyse the impact of these energy efficiency and environmental goals and instruments on electricity demand and costs to electricity consumers when electricity markets are either national or international and when those policies are implemented by a national or an international institution. The paper shows that the effectiveness and impact of those measures largely depends on the demand response in the electricity market. An additional conclusion is that, when either the electricity markets or the support policies are national, distortions may occur, i.e. the reductions in electricity demand in one country may be subsidised by consumers or taxpayers in another country.     

Electricity generation development of Eastern Europe: A carbon technology management case study for Poland

Energy and electricity in particular, are of unquestionable value for the welfare of all modern societies. The electricity sectors of Eastern European countries have undergone several phases of development between the post-WWII days within the CEMA and USSR frameworks and today's EU and global energy and environmental regimes. The present paper examines the progress of the Polish electricity sector throughout the last decades, providing useful information regarding not only the technical generation and distribution infrastructure but also the policies that have been and are currently implemented. The results are discussed in the context of indicators such as the electricity intensity and per capita consumption, and show that although the Polish electricity sector has gone a long way, there still are several necessary technology management steps to be taken if Poland is to adequately address the challenges of international competition, electricity supply security and environmental sustainability.     

RE in EU-28: Renewable energy policies in an enlarged European Union

The goal of increasing the share of renewable energy sources (RES) in total primary energy supply (TPES) as well as in electricity production in an enlarged European Union (EU-28) will be a challenging one and most likely will be addressed by a mix of promotion instruments. Mischa Bechberger and Danyel Reiche take a look at the implications for renewables in an enlarged EU.The most prominent policies in the case of electricity are renewable energy feed-in tariffs (REFIT) and quota systems, but also others like tenders, energy tax exemptions, and environmental funds in the form of investment subsidies, and soft loans are playing a part.     

The impact of international GHG trading regimes on penetration of new energy technologies and feasibility to implement EU Energy and Climate Package targets

The EU's new energy and environment policy - agreed by government leaders in their Council meeting in March 2007 - established a political agenda to tackle three core energy objectives: sustainability, economic competitiveness and security of supply. A triad of specific policies addresses these challenges: first, the 20/20/20 targets of the EU; then, the Second Strategic Energy Review of the European Commission; and finally, plans to liberalise energy markets. The European Union's ‘20/20/20′ targets for 2020: reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 20% comparing with 1990 level (to become a 30% reduction if other major global economies join), increase the share of renewables in the final energy consumption to 20% and to achieve 20% improvement in energy efficiency compared to the level in 2020 if existing trends were to continue.The aim of the paper is to analyse the feasibility of EU to implement 20/20/20 targets under the various international GHG trading regimes. GHG trading regimes were addressed by developing 10 energy scenarios until 2020 for EU by applying several energy modelling tools ranging from top down partial equilibrium to detailed technology based bottom up models.     

Feasibility of the Nordic forest energy harvesting technology in Poland and Scotland

Finland and Sweden have been forerunners in the development of wood harvesting machinery and methods. In both countries, small- and large-scale supply systems for wood chips have been in operation for several decades. More recently, the production and use of forest chips from logging residues and small diameter trees has been growing rapidly.The European Union (EU) has set ambitious targets for the use of renewable energy to mitigate climate change and to increase domestic energy security and self-sufficiency. The largest unutilised source for renewable energy in the EU is forest biomass. European forests could fulfill one third of the goal set for biomass-based energy production in the EU’s Biomass Action Plan. In addition, member countries have started national programmes to promote the use of biomass for energy.As a result, interest in Nordic forest energy technology has been increasing rapidly in other parts of the EU. The Finnish Forest Research Institute and its collaborators have been running a technology transfer project in ten European countries, with the goal of tailoring and adapting Nordic forest technology to local conditions through analysing the applicability, costs and overall competitiveness of selected feedstock supply technologies.This paper summarizes the findings of feasibility studies carried out in Poland and Scotland and gives an overview of the current situation and development trends of forest energy in the European Union.     

Cost effects of international trade in meeting EU renewable electricity targets

The European market for renewable electricity received a major stimulus from the adoption of the Directive on the Promotion of Renewable Electricity. The Directive specifies the indicative targets for electricity supply from renewable energy sources (RES-E) to be reached in European Union (EU) Member States in the year 2010. It also requires Member States to certify the origin of their renewable electricity production. This article presents a first EU-wide quantitative evaluation of the effects of meeting the targets, using an EU-wide system for tradable green certificates (TGC). We calculate the equilibrium price of green certificates and identify which countries are likely to export or import certificates. Cost advantages of participating in such an EU-wide trading scheme are determined for each of the Member States. Moreover, we identify which choice of technologies results in meeting targets at least costs. Results are obtained from a model that quantifies the effects of achieving the RES-E targets in the EU with and without trade. The article provides a brief insight in this model as well as the methodology that was used to specify cost potential curves for renewable electricity in each of the 15 EU Member States. Model calculations show that within the EU-wide TGC system, the total production costs of the last option needed to satisfy the overall EU RES-E target equals 9.2 eurocent/kWh. Assuming that the production price of electricity on the European power market would equal 3 eurocent/kWh in the year 2010, the indicative green certificate price equals 6.2 eurocent/kWh. We conclude that implementation of an EU-wide TGC system is a cost-efficient way of stimulating renewable electricity supply.     

Linking consumer energy efficiency with security of supply

Most modern energy policies seek to achieve systematic ongoing incremental increases in consumer energy efficiency, since this contributes to improved security of supply, favourable environmental outcomes and increased economic efficiency. Yet realised levels of efficiency are typically well below the most cost-effective equilibrium due to variety of behavioural and organisational barriers, which are often linked to information constraints. In addition efficient users are normally unrewarded for collective benefits to system security and to the environment, thus reducing the incentives for energy consumers to invest in efficiency improvements. This paper examines the dichotomies and symmetries between supply- and demand-side solutions to energy security concerns and reviews opportunities to overcome barriers to improved consumer efficiency. A security market is identified as a mechanism to promote both demand- and supply-side investments that support electricity system security. Such a market would assist in setting the optimal quantity of reserves while achieving an efficient balance between supply- and demand-side initiatives. It would also help to smooth overall investment throughout the energy system by encouraging incremental approaches, such as distributed generation and demand-side alternatives where they provide competitive value. Although the discussion is applicable to energy systems in general, it focuses primarily on electricity in New Zealand.     

Electricity from biomass in the European union—With or without biomass import

The European Union has set up indicative targets for its 15 Member States to supply 22.1% of their total electricity consumption using renewable energy resources by 2010. This paper compares two ways to achieve target compliance—either with import of biomass from countries outside the EU or without. The ADMIRE REBUS model combines cost data for electricity producing renewable energy technologies with data on the renewable energy resources available in EU and assesses the effect of the various national support policies for green electricity in the EU countries. The major finding of the study is that increased imports of low-cost biomass will significantly reduce the cost of target compliance, but would hamper the use of energy crops and further development of wind power within the EU. Despite this, increased importation of biomass can be the cost-reducing factor making the target realisable, which would justify promotion of such trade.     

The security of gas supply—a critical issue for Europe?

Gas is competing with oil for being the dominant energy source. In electricity generation gas is to play as pivotal a role as oil in transportation. The security equation of gas and electricity become unseparably interrelated. Energy disruptions have considerable influence on the national accounts far beyond the direct cost of market participants (asymmetry). The present gas supply to the EU depends dangerously on too few sources and venues. There is a decided lack of optionality. The EU directly or through its members needs a clear proactive policy on “Security of Gas Supply” with a strong multilateral direction. The measures developed for the oil industry over the last 30 years can at least serve as a starting point for a constructive debate. When discussing security of supply dependence it is useful to clearly define the various risks one wishes to protect against. Free riders relying on alternative fuels without participating in their security systems are not permissible.     

The perspectives of energy production from coal‐fired power plants in an enlarged EU

The aim of this paper is to present the current status of the coal‐fired power sector in an enlarged EU (EU‐15 plus EU member candidate states) in relation with the main topics of the European Strategy for the energy production and supply. It is estimated that 731 thermoelectric units, larger than 100 MW_e, are operating nowadays, and their total installed capacity equals to 200.7 GW_e. Coal contribution to the total electricity generation with reference to other fuel sources, is by far more intensive in the non‐EU part (EU member candidate states), compared to the EU member states. It is expected that even after the enlargement, the European Union will strongly being related to coal. Enlargement will bring additional factors into play in order to meet the requirements of rising consumption, growing demand for conventional fuels and increasing dependence on imports. Besides the technology, boiler size, efficiency, age and environmental performance will determine the necessities of the coal‐fired power sector in each country. Depending on the case, lifetime extension measures in operating coal‐fired power plants or clean coal technologies can play an important role towards the energy sector restructuring. Low efficiency values in the non‐EU coal‐fired units and heavily aged power plants in EU countries will certainly affect decisions in favour of upgrading or reconstruction. The overall increase of efficiency, the reduction of harmful emissions from generating processes and the co‐combustion of coal with biomass and wastes for generating purposes indicate that coal can be cleaner and more efficient. Additionally, plenty of rehabilitation projects based on CCT applications, have already been carried out or are under progress in the EU energy sector. The proclamations of the countries' energy policies in the coming decades, includes integrated renovation concepts of the coal‐fired power sector. Further to the natural gas penetration in the electricity generation and CO₂ sequestration and underground storage, the implementation of CCT projects will strongly contribute to the reduction of CO₂ emissions in the European Union, according to the targets set in the Kyoto protocol. In consequence, clean coal technologies can open up new markets not only in the EU member candidate states, but also in other parts of the world. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Energy efficiency in the residential sector: identification of promising policy instruments and private initiatives among selected European countries

Improving residential energy efficiency is widely recognised as one of the best strategies for reducing energy demand, combating climate change, and increasing security of energy supply. However, progress has been slow to date due to a number of market and behavioural barriers that have not been adequately addressed by energy efficiency policies and programmes. This study is based on updated findings of the European Futures for Energy Efficiency Project that responds to the EU Horizon 2020 Work Programme 2014–2015 theme ‘Secure, clean and efficient energy’. This article draws on five case studies from selected European countries—Finland, Italy, Hungary, Spain, and the UK—and evaluates recent energy efficiency developments in terms of indicators, private initiatives, and policy measures in the residential sector. Our analysis shows that the UK government has implemented a better range of policies, coupled with initiatives from the private sector, aimed at improving energy efficiency. However, its existing conditions appear to be more problematic than the other countries. On the other hand, the lack of effective and targeted policies in Finland resulted in increased energy consumption, while in Hungary, Spain and Italy some interesting initiatives, especially in terms of financial and fiscal incentives, have been found.     

Promotion of renewable energy in Baltic States

Baltic States have quite limited own energy resources. In the accession agreement with EU Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia have verified their targets to increase the share of electricity produced from renewable energy sources (RES-E) by the year 2010. Lithuania has target to increase RES-E from 3.3 to 7%, Latvia—from 42.4 to 49.3% and Estonia—from 0.2 to 5.1%. Promotion of use of renewable energy sources are among the priorities of energy policy in Baltic States. More wide use of renewable energy can make a valuable contribution to diversification of energy supply and increase of reliability of energy supply and to meeting GHG emission reduction targets. The article presents a detailed overview of the present policies and measures implemented in Baltic States aiming to support the use of renewable energy sources. The article presents a review of the present renewable situation in Baltic States and analyses policies and measures in place aiming to enhance use of renewables. The review of possibilities to use EU structural funds for the implementation of renewable energy projects in Baltic States was performed in the paper.     

Biofuel implementation in East Europe: Current status and future prospects

There is a continuously increasing interest concerning the biofuel implementation in Europe, mainly because of environmental protection and energy supply security reasons. In this context, the European Union (EU) strongly encourages the use of biofuels through a number of Directives. To that effect, EU members follow the Directives implementing various political, fiscal and technical measures and incentives. In the light of the potential created by the recently joined Eastern European countries, an increasing interest is shown in the whole biofuel supply chain within the EU. In parallel, the status of the Eastern European countries domestic market, as far as biofuels are concerned, is an interesting issue, since most of these countries present a significant potential, however still lagging in biofuel implementation. In the above context, the objective of the present work is to give a concise and up-to-date picture of the present status of biofuel implementation in East Europe. The work also aims at identifying the prospects of these countries as far as biofuels are concerned and their role in the EU framework as potential suppliers of a wider market.     

Sustainable energy in Baltic States

Integration of New Member States to the European Union has created a new situation in the frame of implementation of the Lisbon strategy and EU Sustainable Development. The closure of Ignalina NPP is the biggest challenge to the energy sector development of the Baltic States. The Baltic States have quite limited own energy resources and in the Accession agreement with the EU Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia have verified their targets to increase the share of electricity produced from renewable energy sources (RES-E) by the year 2010. A wider use of renewable energy and increase of energy efficiency can make a valuable contribution to meeting the targets of sustainable development. The article presents a detailed overview of the present policies and measures implemented in the Baltic States, aiming to support the use of RES and the increase of energy efficiency. The review of possibilities to use the EU Structural Funds (SF) for the implementation of sustainable energy projects in the Baltic States was performed.The use of regional social–economic–environmental indicators is the main key to integrate sustainable energy development at the program deployment level. The indicators to be used should describe the contribution of energy programs to the sustainable development, medium- and long-term trends and inter-relationship between them and the typical energy indicators (saved toe, improved energy efficiency, percentage of RES). Municipalities may play a considerable role by promoting sustainable energy since local authorities are fulfilling their functions in the energy sector via a number of roles. The Netherlands’ example shows that municipalities may act as facilitators by implementing national environmental policy and increasing energy efficiency in an integral part of these activities. The guidelines for Lithuanian local sustainable energy development using the SF co-financing have been presented.     

Electricity generation from renewable energy sources in Poland

AbstractFor the European Union's Member States 2001/77/EC Directive on the promotion of electricity produced from renewable energy sources in the internal electricity market determined targets for 2010 of 21% share of electricity from renewable energy sources in total electricity consumption. Particular Member States adopted different measures for development of renewable and in consequence they achieved different results. Poland, being Member State of the EU since 2004 has accepted target of 7.5% for electricity generated from renewable energy sources until 2010. Currently, in this decade, new 2009/28/EC Directive on the promotion of the use of energy from renewable sources plays significant role in development of renewable energy sources. Directive set new target for 2020. Nowadays is a time for summary and assessment of results fulfilling Directives and monitor progress of new targets. Article presents measures implemented for renewable source energy development, also current state and perspectives of using of renewable energy sources in Poland and in the EU.     

Towards a future with large penetration of distributed generation: Is the current regulation of electricity distribution ready? Regulatory recommendations under a European perspective

The European Energy Policy promotes renewable energy sources and energy efficiency as means to mitigate environmental impact, increase security of supply and ensure economic competitiveness. As a result, the penetration levels of distributed generation (DG) in electricity networks are bound to increase. Distribution networks and distribution system operators (DSOs) will be especially affected by growing levels of DG. This paper reviews the current regulation of distribution in the European Union Member States, focusing on those aspects that might hinder the future integration of DG. Several regulatory issues that may hinder a successful integration of DG have been identified. Recommendations to improve the current situation are proposed. Regarding economic signals sent to DG, connection charges and cost-reflective use-of-system charges together with incentives to provide ancillary services are the key aspects. Concerning DSOs regulation, unbundling from generation and supply according to the European Electricity Directive, incentives for optimal planning and network operation considering DG, including energy losses and quality of service, and innovation schemes to migrate to active networks are the most relevant topics.     

Market perspectives of stationary fuel cells in a sustainable energy supply system—long-term scenarios for Germany

Because of high efficiency, low environmental impacts and a potential role in transforming our energy system into a hydrogen economy, fuel cells are often considered as a key technology for a sustainable energy supply. However, the future framing conditions under which stationary fuel cells have to prove their technical and economic competitiveness are most likely characterised by a reduced demand for space heating, and a growing contribution of renewable energy sources to heat and electricity supply, which both directly limit the potential for combined heat and power generation, and thus also for fuel cells. Taking Germany as a case study, this paper explores the market potential of stationary fuel cells under the structural changes of the energy demand and supply system required to achieve a sustainable energy supply. Results indicate that among the scenarios analysed it is in particular a strategy oriented towards ambitious CO₂-reduction targets, which due to its changes in the supply structure is in a position to mobilise a market potential that might be large enough for a successful fuel cell commercialisation. However, under the conditions of a business-as-usual trajectory the sales targets of fuel cell manufacturers cannot be met.     

欧洲热电业的现状和前景

介绍欧盟热电产业的概况，特别是热电联产技术的发展现状、潜力和前景，分析了影响热电发展的相关政策，同时介绍了一些欧盟成员国采取的各种鼓励措施。强调热电业的进一步发展必须与欧盟能源政策的三大目标相一致：即保障能源供应、提高工业竞争力、保护环境，这些目标的实施对实现经济可持续发展和环境保护是非常必要的。     

Industry lobbying and the political economy of GHG trade in the European Union

The European Union (EU) has committed itself to meet an 8% greenhouse gas (GHG) reduction target level following the Kyoto agreement. In September 2003 the EU member states has agreed on the Directive for establishing a scheme for GHG emission allowance trading within the European Union. This directive is the outcome of a policy process started by the EU Commission and its Green Paper from March 2000. The main industrial stakeholders all had the opportunity to comment on the Green Paper and from their positions we will analyse how far they are winners or losers compared to the final directive proposal. Comparing the initial Green Paper proposal (before lobbyism) to the final directive (after lobbyism) gave us a unique possibility for measuring the effect of lobbyism. Here, we find that the dominant interest groups indeed influenced the final design of an EU GHG market. This industrial rent-seeking most prominently leads to a grandfathered permit allocation rule like the one found in the US tradeable permit systems.