红庙岭生活垃圾填埋气体回收利用的CDM可行性研究

对国内几个已批准的填埋气体收集利用CDM项目，在比较分析的基础上，结合福州市红庙岭生活垃圾填埋场具体情况，对该场填埋气体回收利用的CDM可行性进行研究及效益评析。结果表明：只要尽快合理地开发该项目，不仅能大大减少填埋气体的排放量，同时也减排了因替代其它能源产生电能而带来的温室气体。因此，具有同类垃圾填埋场的城市也应通过国家相关部门积极申报填埋气体发电CDM项目。     

福州红庙岭生活垃圾填埋气体回收利用的CDM可行性研究

对国内几个已批准的填埋气体收集利用CDM项目,在比较分析的基础上,结合福州市红庙岭生活垃圾填埋场具体情况,对该场填埋气体回收利用的CDM可行性进行研究及效益评析。结果表明:只要尽快合理地开发该项目,不仅能大大减少填埋气体的排放量,同时也减排了因替代其它能源产生电能而带来的温室气体。因此,具有同类垃圾填埋场的城市也应通过国家相关部门积极申报填埋气体发电CDM项目。     

Small-scale CDM projects in a competitive electricity industry: How good is a simplified baseline methodology?

Setting baseline emissions is one of the principal tasks involved in awarding credits for greenhouse gas emission (GHG) mitigation projects under the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM). An emission baseline has to be project-specific in order to be accurate. However, project-specific baseline calculations are subject to high transaction costs, which disadvantage small-scale projects. For this reason, the CDM-Executive Board (CDM-EB) has approved simplified baseline methodologies for selected small-scale CDM project categories. While the simplified methods help reduce the transaction cost, they may also result in inaccuracies in the estimation of emission reductions from CDM projects. The purpose of this paper is to present a rigorous economic scheduling method for calculating the GHG emission reduction in a hypothetical competitive electricity industry due to the operation of a renewable energy-based power plant under CDM and compare the GHG emission reduction derived from the rigorous method with that obtained from the use of a simplified (i.e., standardized) method approved by the CDM-EB. A key finding of the paper is that depending upon the level of power demand, prices of electricity and input fuels, the simplified method can lead to either significant overestimation or substantial underestimation of emission reduction due to the operation of renewable energy-based power projects in a competitive electricity industry.     

As if Kyoto mattered: The clean development mechanism and transportation

Transportation is a major source of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and the most rapidly growing anthropogenic source. In the future, the developing world will account for the largest share of transport GHG increases. Four basic components drive transportation energy consumption and GHG emissions: activities (A), mode share (S), fuel intensity (I) and fuel choice (F) (ASIF). Currently, the Kyoto Protocol's clean development mechanism (CDM) serves as the main international market-based tool designed to reduce GHG emissions from the developing world. Theoretically, the CDM has the dual purpose of helping developing countries achieve “sustainable development” goals and industrialized countries meet their Kyoto emissions reduction commitments. This paper reviews overall CDM activities and transportation CDM activities to date and then presents findings from three case studies of transportation CDM possibilities examined with the ASIF framework in Santiago de Chile. The analysis suggests that bus technology switch (I) provides a fairly good project fit for the CDM, while options aimed at inducing mode share (S) to bicycle, or modifying travel demand via land use changes (ASI) face considerable challenges. The implications of the findings for the CDM and the “post-Kyoto” world are discussed.     

Trigeneration: A new way for landfill gas utilization and its feasibility in Hong Kong

Application of landfill gas (LFG) means a synergy between environmental protection and energy production. This paper presents a review of the status of LFG application. To more efficiently utilize the LFG in Hong Kong, a trigeneration scheme is proposed as a new way of LFG utilization. The feasibility of LFG trigeneration in Hong Kong is evaluated from the views of primary energy-saving and greenhouse gas (GHG) emission reduction as well as economic benefit. The proposed scenario is compared with the conventional scenarios of LFG treatment and utilization. It is shown that LFG for trigeneration has a higher energy saving and GHG emission reduction potentials. The new scheme is also more economical than the conventional way of LFG utilization. Some policy recommendations are also given to promote the biomass energy utilization from waste landfills in Hong Kong.     

我国垃圾填埋气发电项目利用清洁发展机制的可行性研究

结合垃圾填埋气发电案例,分析了垃圾填埋气发电CDM项目开发的基准线和额外性,评估了我国垃圾填埋气发电项目利用清洁发展机制的可行性,并结合国情指出CDM有利于减少我国垃圾填埋场温室气体排放水平。     

我国煤矿区煤层气CDM项目的开发现状与潜力

中国是煤炭生产大国,在生产煤炭的同时,也排放出大量的煤矿瓦斯,煤层气的回收与利用是我国开展清洁发展机制(CDM)的三个优先领域之一。在我国开展此领域的减排项目潜力巨大。在煤矿区实施减排项目,不仅可以保护环境,还可保证煤矿安全,提供清洁的能源。本文简要介绍了清洁发展机制的概念和国内外管理机制,详细说明了我国开展煤矿区开展CDM项目的最新进展以及今后的项目潜力,最后提出煤矿区开展CDM项目的政策和管理建议。     

基于CDM的农村沼气项目经济评价

以电、石油液化气、标准煤为参考燃料,对农村户用沼气池建设进行经济评价,结果表明,在没有CDM项目支持的情况下,一个8 m3的农村户用沼气池的建设项目,其财务净现值为-470.20元,投资回收期为8.18年,财务内部收益率为4.79%,是一个没有经济吸引力的项目;如果得到CDM项目支持,其财务净现值为315.27元,投资回收期为6.09年,财务内部收益率为13.24%,高于12%的农业行业基准收益率,具有一定盈利能力,在经济财务上是可行的.     

燃煤电厂节能改造CDM方法学应用解析

为推动国内燃煤电厂改造类CDM项目开发和发展,实现节能减排的同时获得发达国家资金支持,并促进我国电力行业的可持续发展,对目前联合国已批准的关于燃煤电厂改造提高能效的CDM方法学AM61“现有电厂复原和/或能源效率改善方法学”和AM62“电厂通过汽轮机改造实现能源效率改善方法学”进行比较,重点分析二者在适用条件和减排量计算方面的区别.比较结果显示,两个方法学各有特点和优势,项目开发者应根据项目具体情况选择合适的方法学进行此类CDM项目开发.     

Transaction costs,institutional rigidities and the size of the clean development mechanism

Transaction costs and institutional rigidities will reduce the attractiveness of the Kyoto Protocol flexibility mechanisms compared to domestic greenhouse gas abatement options. The clean development mechanism (CDM) in particular is likely to entail considerable costs of baseline development, project registration, verification and certification. The activities implemented jointly pilot phase and the prototype carbon fund programme give indications about these costs. There is evidence that projects with high implementation costs have high transaction costs as well. Moreover, CDM projects have to be approved by host country institutions, and so far only a small share of host countries has been able to set up these institutions. Several of the larger host countries intend to only approve projects if the market price is above a certain threshold. Some governments will also levy fees to finance costs of approval bodies. We assess these issues using a quantitative model of the Kyoto Protocol permit market. We conclude that while changes in demand from Annex B countries remain the crucial factor, the size of the CDM will depend to a significant degree on transaction costs and institutional barriers in host countries.     

中国节能建筑CDM项目基准线方法

清洁发展机制(CDM)的实施可有效地促进中国建筑部门节能和温室气体(GHGs)减排。结合建筑CDM项目的特殊性，探讨了不同类型的节能建筑CDM项目的基准线(Baseline)的设定方法，并以一办公建筑CDM项目为例尝试了基准线的选择。     

发展中国家政府对国内CDM项目管理的经济手段

CDM是基于发达国家温室气体减排义务之上的发达国家和发展中国家合作机制。为了保障CDM项目能够产生实在的、可测量的、长期的效益及额外于任何其他项目的温室气体减排量,已经通过政治谈判建立了从CDM项目设计、国家批准、审查登记、项目监测、核实/认证、到签发核准的减排量(CERs)的管理框架和规则。然而,在如何使CDM项目的发达国家和发展中国家参与方能够公平地分享CDM项目所产生的经济利益方面,目前仍然存在很多问题有待于解决。发达国家强调CDM项目合作应该完全基于市场机制。但由于CDM的项目运作过程和项目所产生的交易品(CERs)与现有的国际贸易规则有很大的不同,完全基于市场机制和成本竞争将不利于保障发展中国家参与方的利益,因此发展中国家的政府有必要采用经济手段对本国境内实施的CDM项目进行一定的控制和干预。     

Challenges for energy efficiency improvement under the CDM—the case of energy-efficient lighting

The CDM under the Kyoto Protocol has so far been unable to mobilize activities of households and service industries to improve end-use energy efficiency. This is mainly due to the lack of or the cumbersome requirements of the few existing baseline and monitoring methodologies as well as the difficulty to prove project additionality. We assess methodologies for projects distributing compact fluorescent lamps to households. The approval of the first large-scale methodology took more than 2 years and in the interaction with the regulatory bodies, the methodology became very cumbersome, especially regarding monitoring requirements. Four sample groups are required and the technology that has to be used for measuring utilization of CFLs does not yet exist. Therefore, project developers are not applying the large-scale methodology but try to use the pre-defined small-scale methodology. But even the small-scale methodology requires a substantial amount of data and measurements. A “Programme of Activity” approach could reduce monitoring costs through limiting monitoring to a sample of projects. Moreover, monitoring experts could be trained and thus monitoring mistakes reduced compared to single project settings. A deemed savings methodology was recently approved which alleviates but does not completely eliminate monitoring needs. It considerably reduces CER volumes compared to the other two methodologies and thus project developers have to assess the trade-off between higher monitoring costs and lower CER volumes.     

国际CDM现状分析

2005年2月16日,倍受国际社会关注的《京都议定书》(《议定书》)终于正式生效。《议定书》下的清洁发展机制(CDM)与发展中国家关系最为密切,了解和分析国际上实施CDM的动态,是发展中国家积极参与国际减排行动并争取自身最大利益的必要前提。《京都议定书》下正式的CDM项目屈指可数,项目审批程序复杂、风险大;技术含量低、减排量大的非CO2项目大行其道;CER价格被买方压制。众多因素限制了CDM市场的大规模发展和对东道国可持续发展的贡献。昂贵而费时的项目开发、核证和审批使CDM产生了事倍功半的效果。若不对CDM体制进行较大的改革,它将很难在2012年后继续生存下去。对于中国的CDM开发商和咨询机构,采用EB已批方法学将有助于降低审批风险;实施单边项目将有可能使CER获得二级或现货市场的最大收益。     

The economic potential of bagasse cogeneration as CDM projects in Indonesia

Surplus bagasse in Indonesian sugar mills is potential for grid-connected electricity-generating projects under Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) scheme. In addition, it is further perceived to considerably support the efforts to address prevailing crises in domestic sugar industry and power generation sector. This paper aims at analyzing the economic potential of bagasse cogeneration as CDM projects in Indonesia with the main deliverables of total emission reductions per year and Certified Emission Reduction (CER) earnings. The analysis was made by following the applicable methodologies and based on publicly available data from official and other sources on the websites. The results show that with the electricity displacement potential at 260,253 MWh, Indonesia could generate Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emission reductions as much as 240,774 (large scale) or 198,177 tCO₂ (small scale) per annum from the recently-employed low efficiency cogeneration leading to the earnings of about US$1.36 or 1.12 million, respectively. Out of 6 regional grids where the electricity from the project activities can be grid-connected, the primary emission reductions potentials are encountered in Java-Bali and Southern Sumatera grids. Additionally, various barriers in technical, institutional, financial, and other aspects have been identified as the justifications to pass the additionality test.     

The role of offsets in a post-Kyoto climate agreement: The power sector in China

This paper considers how an offset scheme specific to the electricity generation sector could incentivize emissions cuts while avoiding the problems encountered by the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM). It proposes an approach to project evaluation based on measures of additionality, economic viability and contribution to sustainable development specific to this sector and re-evaluates 460 registered CDM projects in China that generate electricity using wind, natural gas or small hydro. It concludes that many small hydro schemes would be viable without the CDM subsidy. Although these projects have zero emissions from operations, offsets issued to projects that are viable without subsidy permit increased emissions in developed countries and lead to a net increase in global emissions. To provide some indication of the sustainable development benefits that CDM projects bring to their host countries, the paper includes estimates of the projects’ benefit to public health due to the reduced use of coal for generation. The paper provides insights into the economics of projects and their value to host countries that are missed by the official CDM methodologies. It contributes to the debate over the design of sector-specific offset schemes that may be part of a new global agreement on combating climate change.     

From carbon to light: a new framework for estimating greenhouse gas emissions reductions from replacing fuel-based lighting with LED systems

There is considerable well-intended, yet wishful anticipation about reducing greenhouse gas emissions by replacing fuel-based lighting in the developing world with grid-independent light-emitting diode (LED) lighting systems. Most estimates gloss over important practical realities that stand to erode a genuinely significant potential. The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) is the leading system for quantifying the benefits of such projects in developing countries and embodying them in a market-based platform for trading carbon credits. However, compliance with methodologies for highly decentralized, small-scale energy saving projects currently employed in the CDM is viewed by developers of as onerous, time-consuming, and costly. In recognition of the problem, the CDM has recently placed priority on improved methodologies for estimating carbon dioxide reductions from displacement of fuel-based lighting with energy-efficient alternatives. The over-arching aim is to maintain environmental integrity without stifling sustainable emission-reduction projects and programs in the field. This article informs this process by laying out a new framework that shifts the analytical focus from highly costly yet narrow and uncertain baseline estimations to simplified methods based primarily on deemed values that focus on replacement lighting system quality and performance characteristics. The result??many elements of which have been adopted in a new methodology approved by the CDM??is more structured and rigorous than methodologies used for LED projects in the past and yet simpler to implement, i.e., entailing fewer transaction costs. Applying this new framework, we find that some off-grid lighting technologies can be expected to yield little or no emissions reductions, while well-designed ones, using products independently certified to have high quality and durability, can generate significant reductions. Enfolding quality assurance within the proposed framework will help stem ??market spoiling?? currently underway in the developing world??caused by the introduction of substandard off-grid lighting products??thereby ensuring carbon reduction additionality (emissions reductions that would have not occurred in the absence of the CDM program).     

利用PCDM促进我国能源可持续发展

规划方案下的清洁发展机制（PCDM）的有效实施．将会对发展中国家的能源、经济和社会的可持续发展带来良好效益。除开发碳捕获与碳埋存技术之外,联合国气候框架公约执行理事会在我国电力行业其他减排领域均有相关的方法学,可以开发成CDM项目。目前我国已开发的CDM项目主要集巾在可再生能源领域巾的风电、水电、生物质发电方而。PCDM最适宜使用的是小型方法学。以宁夏丰联彭阳太阳灶项目为例．拟定项目基准线情形,计算出年减排量约为35723t二氧化碳当量。PCDM的实施仍存在其本身还不完善、尚无成功经验可借鉴、金融危机下国际碳交易市场萎缩等障碍。建议我国应完善CDM项目管理办法,鼓励多方协作开发PCDM,开发适合我国国情的方法学,积极参与国际PCDM规划的制定与简化。     

Greenhouse effect reduction and energy recovery from waste landfill

Waste management systems are a non-negligible source of greenhouse gases. In particular, methane and carbon dioxide emissions occur in landfills due to the breakdown of biodegradable carbon compounds operated on by anaerobic bacteria. The conventional possibilities of reducing the greenhouse effect (GHE) from waste landfilling consists in landfill gas (LFG) flaring or combustion with energy recovery in reciprocating engines. These conventional treatments are compared with three innovative possibilities: the direct LFG feeding to a fuel cell (FC); the production of a hydrogen-rich gas, by means of steam reforming and CO₂ capture, to feed a stationary FC; the production of a hydrogen-rich gas, by means of steam reforming and CO₂ capture, to feed a vehicle FC. The comparison is carried out from an environmental point of view, calculating the specific production of GHE per unit mass of waste disposed in landfill equipped with the different considered technologies.     

填埋气体小型变压吸附的试验研究

填埋气体(LFG)作为可再生的清洁能源,对其进行回收利用是非常重要的。变压吸附作为一种气体分离技术,能较好地将CH4与CO2分离。文章对填埋气体的变压吸附进行了小试试验,根据不同操作条件下产品气中甲烷浓度和甲烷回收率来确定最佳操作条件,从而为填埋气体变压吸附的中试试验提供一定的理论依据。