Electricity savings and CO2 emissions reduction in buildings sector: How important the network losses are in the calculation?

The increase of CO₂ emissions and the emerging climate change are the most serious environmental problems nowadays and limit economic development. This increase is mainly attributed to the growing world population and the related growth in energy demand, which results in the vast consumption of fossil fuels in the power generation sector. Significant actions for the implementation of energy saving measures have been adopted worldwide for reducing greenhouse gas emissions. CO₂ calculators have been developed to evaluate the effectiveness of these measures, relating energy to CO₂ emissions. These calculators include in most cases the entire power system. The purpose of this work was to evaluate the role of the electricity networks' losses in the actual CO₂ reduction potential, following the implementation of energy saving measures, in relation to the network's voltage level in which the infrastructure is connected. Buildings are representative due to their volume and to different voltage levels of power supply. The work presented was conducted in the framework of the Intelligent Energy Europe Programme entitled Bottom Up to Kyoto (BUtK), as a part of an evaluation of the CO₂ emissions' reduction potential through energy savings measures in 6 municipalities of EU's New Member States.     

Cost‐effectiveness analysis of energy efficiency measures in the Swiss chemical and pharmaceutical industry

Energy efficiency improvement is an effective way of reducing energy demand and CO₂ emissions. Although the overall final energy savings potential in chemical industry has been estimated in a few countries, energy efficiency potentials by concrete measures applicable in the sector have been scarcely explored and their associated costs are hardly analyzed. In Switzerland, the production of chemicals and pharmaceuticals exceeds all other industrial sectors in terms of energy use and CO₂ emissions, and it accounted for 22% of the total industry's overall final energy demand and 25% of the CO₂ emissions related to non‐renewable energy sources in 2016. In this study, the economic potentials for energy efficiency improvement and CO₂ emissions reduction in the Swiss chemical and pharmaceutical industry are investigated in the form of energy efficiency cost curves. The economic potential for final energy savings and CO₂ abatement based on energy‐relevant investments is estimated at 15% and 22% of the sector's final energy use and fossil fuel‐related CO₂ emissions in 2016, respectively. Measures related to process heat integration are expected to play a key role for final energy savings. The economic electricity savings potential by improving motor systems is estimated at 15% of the electricity demand by these systems in 2016. The size of economic potential of energy efficiency improvement across the sector decreases from 15% to 11% for 0.5 times lower final energy prices while the size increases insignificantly for 1.5 times higher final energy prices. The additional power generation potential based on Combined Heat and Power plants is estimated at 14 MW for 2016. This study is a contribution to the so far limited international literature on economic energy efficiency measures applicable in this heterogeneous sector and can support policy development. The results for specific costs of energy efficiency measures can also be adapted to other parts of the world by making suitable adjustments which in return may provide useful insights for decision makers to invest in economically viable clean energy solutions.     

Modelling the UK residential energy sector under long-term decarbonisation scenarios: Comparison between energy systems and sectoral modelling approaches

The UK government has set a groundbreaking target of a 60% reduction in carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions by 2050. Scenario and modelling assessment of this stringent target consistently finds that all sectors need to contribute to emissions reductions. The UK residential sector accounts for around 30% of the total final energy use and more than one-quarter of CO₂ emissions. This paper focuses on modelling of the residential sector in a system wide energy–economy models (UK MARKAL) and key UK sectoral housing stock models. The UK residential energy demand and CO₂ emission from the both approaches are compared. In an energy system with 60% economy-wide CO₂ reductions, the residential sector plays a commensurate role. Energy systems analysis finds this reduction is primarily driven by energy systems interactions notably decarbonisation of the power sector combined with increased appliance efficiency. The stock models find alternate decarbonisation pathways based on assumptions related to the future building stock and behavioural changes. The paper concludes with a discussion on the assumptions and drivers of emission reductions in different models of the residential energy sector.     

Assessing the cost-effectiveness of electric vehicles in European countries using integrated modeling

Electric vehicles (EVs) are considered alternatives to internal combustion engines due to their energy efficiency and contribution to CO₂ mitigation. The adoption of EVs depends on consumer preferences, including cost, social status and driving habits, although it is agreed that current and expected costs play a major role. We use a partial equilibrium model that minimizes total energy system costs to assess whether EVs can be a cost-effective option for the consumers of each EU27 member state up to 2050, focusing on the impact of different vehicle investment costs and CO₂ mitigation targets. We found that for an EU-wide greenhouse gas emission reduction cap of 40% and 70% by 2050 vis-à-vis 1990 emissions, battery electric vehicles (BEVs) are cost-effective in the EU only by 2030 and only if their costs are 30% lower than currently expected. At the EU level, vehicle costs and the capability to deliver both short- and long-distance mobility are the main drivers of BEV deployment. Other drivers include each state’s national mobility patterns and the cost-effectiveness of alternative mitigation options, both in the transport sector, such as plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) or biofuels, and in other sectors, such as renewable electricity.     

Co-benefits of CO2 emission reduction in a developing country

In this paper, we examine the co-benefits of reducing CO₂ emissions in Thailand during 2005–2050 in terms of local pollutant emissions as well as the role of renewable-, biomass- and nuclear-energy. It also examines the implications of CO₂ emission reduction policy on energy security of the country. The analyses are based on a long term energy system model of Thailand using the MARKAL framework. The study shows that the power sector would account for the largest share (over 60%) in total CO₂ emission reduction followed by the industrial and transport sectors. Under the CO₂ emission reduction target of 30%, there would be a reduction in SO₂ emission by 43% from the base case level. With the CO₂ emission reduction target of 10–30%, the cumulative net energy imports in the country during 2005–2050 would be reduced in the range of over 16 thousand PJ to 26 thousand PJ from the base case emission level. Under the CO₂ emission reduction targets, the primary energy supply system would be diversified towards lower use of coal and higher use of natural gas, biomass and nuclear fuels.     

Modelling the impacts of a carbon emission-differentiated vehicle tax system on CO2 emissions intensity from new vehicle purchases in Ireland

The increasing awareness of the effects of climate change on the environment and the economic pressure on oil supply has focused international attention on reducing CO₂ emissions and energy usage across all sectors. In order to meet their Kyoto protocol commitments and in line with European Union policy, the Irish government has introduced a carbon-based tax system for new vehicles purchased from the 1st of July 2008. This new legislation aims to reduce carbon emissions in the transport sector, a sector which is responsible for a significant proportion of both. This paper presents the results of the development, calibration, and application of a car choice model which predicts the changes in CO₂ emissions intensity from new vehicle purchases as a result of the changes in vehicle tax policy and fuel price in Ireland. The model also predicts the impact of such changes on tax revenue for the Irish government and the changes in the split between the number of diesel and petrol vehicles purchased. The investigation found that the introduction of these new carbon-based taxes in Ireland will result in a reduction of 3.6–3.8% in CO₂ emissions intensity and a reduction in annual tax revenue of €191 M.     

Decomposition analysis and mitigation strategies of CO2 emissions from energy consumption in South Korea

Energy-related CO₂ emissions in South Korea have increased substantially, outpacing those of Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) countries since 1990. To mitigate CO₂ emissions in South Korea, we need to understand the main contributing factors to rising CO₂ levels as part of the effort toward developing targeted policies. This paper aims to analyze the specific trends and influencing factors that have caused changes in emissions patterns in South Korea over a 15-year period. To this end, we employed the Log Mean Divisia index method with five energy consumption sectors and seven sub-sectors in terms of fuel mix (FM), energy intensity (EI), structural change (SC) and economic growth (EG). The results showed that EG was a dominant explanation for the increase in CO₂ emissions in all of the sectors. The results also demonstrated that FM causes CO₂ reduction across the array of sectors with the exception of the energy supply sector. CO₂ reduction as a function of SC was also observed in manufacturing, services and residential sectors. Furthermore, EI was an important driver of CO₂ reduction in most sectors except for several manufacturing sub-sectors. Based on these findings, it appears that South Korea should implement climate change policies that consider the specific influential factors associated with increasing CO₂ emissions in each sector.     

Energy and environmental implications of carbon emission reduction targets: Case of Kathmandu Valley,Nepal

This paper analyzes the sectoral energy consumption pattern and emissions of CO₂ and local air pollutants in the Kathmandu Valley, Nepal. It also discusses the evolution of energy service demands, structure of energy supply system and emissions from various sectors under the base case scenario during 2005–2050. A long term energy system planning model of the Kathmandu Valley based on the MARKet ALlocation (MARKAL) framework is used for the analyses. Furthermore, the paper analyzes the least cost options to achieve CO₂ emission reduction targets of 10%, 20% and 30% below the cumulative emission level in the base case and also discusses their implications for total cost, technology-mix, energy-mix and local pollutant emissions. The paper shows that a major switch in energy use pattern from oil and gas to electricity would be needed in the Valley to achieve the cumulative CO₂ emission reduction target of 30% (ER30). Further, the share of electricity in the cumulative energy consumption of the transport sector would increase from 12% in the base case to 24% in the ER30 case.     

Significance of CO2-free hydrogen globally and for Japan using a long-term global energy system analysis

In this paper, the significance of CO₂-free hydrogen is discussed using a long-term global energy system. The energy demand–supply system including CO₂-free hydrogen was assumed, though there are still large uncertainties as to whether a global CO₂-free hydrogen energy system will be deployed. System analysis was conducted using the global and long-term intertemporal optimization energy model GRAPE under severe CO₂ emission constraints. Applied global CO₂ constraints for 2050 were a 50% reduction from 1990 levels. CO₂ constraints accounting for Intended Nationally Determined Contributions (INDCs) in each region were also considered. A variety of energy resources and technologies were considered in this model. Hydrogen can be produced from low-grade coal or natural gas with CO₂ capture and electricity from renewable energy. The hydrogen CIF (cost, insurance, and freight) price for Japan was about 3.2 cents/MJ in 2030. Hydrogen demand technologies considered in this paper are hydrogen-fired power plants, direct combustion, combined heat and power (fuel cells, gas engines, and gas turbines), fuel cell vehicles, and hydrogen internal combustion engine vehicles. The majority of CO₂-free hydrogen was deployed in the transportation sector. CO₂-free hydrogen was utilized in the power sector, where deployment of other zero emission technology has some constraints. From an economic viewpoint, CO₂-free hydrogen can reduce the global energy system cost. From the viewpoint of a localized region, such as Japan, deployment of CO₂-free hydrogen can improve energy security and environmental indicators.     

Global climate change: Implications for thailand's energy systems

An energy/environmental model has been developed to estimate Thailand's energy consumption and CO₂ emissions through the end of the National Tenth Plan (year 2011). The projection suggests that fossil-fuel consumption, not deforestation, will be the major source of emissions during 1990–2011. By the year 2011, energy-efficiency improvement measures could bring about a 14% reduction of CO₂ emissions. Any reduction beyond this level would require switches of fuel mix in the power, transportation, and industrial sectors. Fuel shifts in the power sector alone could cut emissions by up to 20% to 30%. In the longer run, Thailand should consider adopting unconventional sources of energy, as well as make use of reforestation policy to absorb future CO₂ emissions.     

Hydrogen production through sorption-enhanced steam methane reforming and membrane technology: A review

With the rapid development of industry, more and more waste gases are emitted into the atmosphere. In terms of total air emissions, CO₂ is emitted in the greatest amount, accounting for 99 wt% of the total air emissions, therefore contributing to global warming, the so-called “Greenhouse Effect”. The recovery and disposal of CO₂ from flue gas is currently the object of great international interest. Most of the CO₂ comes from the combustion of fossil fuels in power generation, industrial boilers, residential and commercial heating, and transportation sectors. Consequently, in the last years’ interest in hydrogen as an energy carrier has significantly increased both for vehicle fuelling and stationary energy production from fuel cells. The benefits of a hydrogen energy policy are the reduction of the greenhouse effect, principally due to the centralization of the emission sources. Moreover, an improvement to the environmental benefits can be achieved if hydrogen is produced from renewable sources, as biomass.     

Technical efficiency and CO2 reduction potentials — An analysis of the German electricity and heat generating sector

In this paper, we analyze the technical efficiency and CO₂ reduction potentials of German power and heat plants, using a non-parametric sequential Data Envelopment Analysis. We apply a metafrontier framework to evaluate plant-level efficiency in the transformation of inputs into desirable (energy) and undesirable (CO₂ emissions) outputs, taking into account different fossil fuel generation technologies. We use a unique data set of coal-, lignite-, gas- and biomass-fired power plants from 2003 through 2010 that provides an unbalanced panel of 1459 observations; the results are also checked against a balanced panel with a smaller number of observations. Although we find intra-group differences within energy generation technology, natural gas fired power plants clearly have the highest efficiency. Furthermore, the analysis points to significant savings potentials for CO₂ and fuel-input, and derives policy conclusions for the ongoing electricity sector reformation.     

Analysis of the energy intensity of Kazakhstan: from data compilation to decomposition analysis

There are large gaps in energy consumption data and consequently in the estimates of CO₂ emissions from fuel combustion in Kazakhstan. This study provides the first comprehensive review of energy consumption trends in Kazakhstan, discusses several important discrepancies in energy statistics and presents an improved versions of Energy Balances, developed using additional data. The results indicate that Kazakhstan’s energy intensity of gross domestic product (GDP) declined by 30% from 1.14 to 0.8 toe/thousand 2005USD between 2000 and 2014. To understand factors influencing this decline, the change in energy intensity of GDP was decomposed using the Logarithmic Mean Divisia Index I method. The upstream sector (mainly oil and gas) played the most important role in the observed GDP energy intensity change. Although the share of this sector in total GDP increased, causing an increase in energy intensity due to inter-sectoral structural effects, the consequences were counteracted by a twofold decline in the sector’s energy intensity, resulting in a net decrease. On the contrary, the power and heat, transport and household sectors saw an increase in energy intensity between 2000 and 2014. The results clearly demonstrate that there is an urgent need for policies and measures to be put in place in the power and heat, household and transport sectors, to support renewable energy development, increase buildings’ energy efficiencies, replace inefficient stoves and improve heating systems and encourage changes in public transportation systems. Furthermore, improving energy statistics and setting appropriate sectoral energy intensity reduction targets are crucial for achieving real efficiency improvements in the economy.     

The analysis of CO2 emission reduction using an ExSS model of Guangdong province in China

This paper studied the CO₂ emission scenarios of Guangdong province in 2020 and divided the CO₂ emission increment and reductions into various departments and driving factors. Based on the Extended Snapshot model, two CO₂ emission scenarios, Business as Usual (BaU) and Counter Measure (CM) scenario were constructed. CM scenario was completed by using reduction technical measures to achieve the reduction emission goal. The results showed that the amount of CO₂ emission is less 189 million tonne in 2020 CM scenario than BaU scenario. By decomposing the emission reduction measures in CM scenario, it showed that the main means to reduce CO₂ emissions were the industrial structure adjustment, the advanced energy efficiency and the power sector structure adjustment, and the emission reduction contribution rates were 36.85%, 34.55% and 21.74%, respectively. The analysis results could be recommended to the government to make the low-carbon development policy and path.     

Modeling of current and future energyintensity and greenhouse gas emissions ofthe Lebanese industrial sector: assessmentof mitigation options

Greenhouse gas emissions in Lebanon mainly come from energy activities, which are responsible for 85% of all CO₂ emissions. The CO₂ emissions from energy use in manufacturing industries and construction represent 24% of the total emissions of the energy sector. Lebanese manufacturers' accounted for 39.15 million gigajoules of fuel consumption for heat and power generation in 1994, including both fuel used directly and fuel burned remotely to generate electricity used in the sector. In addition to being processed by combustion, CO₂ is generated in calcining of carbonates in the manufacture of cement, iron and glass. Electricity, the most expensive form of energy, represented 25.87% of all fuel used for heat and power. Residual fuel oil and diesel, which are used mainly in direct combustion processes, represent 26.85 and 26.55% of all energy use by industry, respectively. Scenarios for future energy use and CO₂ emissions are developed for the industrial sector in Lebanon. The development of the baseline scenario relied on available data on major plants' outputs, and on reported amounts of fuels used by the industrial sector as a whole. Energy use in industry and the corresponding greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions for Lebanon are projected in baseline scenarios that reflect technologies, activities and practices that are likely to evolve from the base year 1994 to year 2040. Mitigation work targets a 15% of CO₂ emissions from the baseline scenario by year 2005 and a 20–30% reduction of CO₂ emissions by year 2040. The mitigation options selected for analysis are screened on the basis of GHG emissions and expert judgement on the viability of their wide-scale implementation and economic benefits. Using macroeconomic assessment and energy price assumptions, the final estimates of potential GHG emissions and reduction costs of various mitigation scenarios are calculated. The results show that the use of efficient electric motors, efficient boilers and furnaces with fuel switching from fuel oil to natural gas has the largest impact on GHG emissions at a levelized annual cost that ranges from −20 to −5 US$/tonne of CO₂ reduced. The negative costs are indicative of direct savings obtained in energy cost for those mitigation options.     

Carbon mitigation in the electric power sector under cap-and-trade and renewables policies

In Europe, CO₂ emissions from the electric power sector and energy intensive industries are capped under a cap-and-trade system (i.e., the EU ETS). When other indirect measures are taken to impact emissions in a specific sector under the cap (such as a push for renewables in the electric power sector), this has implications on the overall allowance price, and on CO₂ emissions both from this specific sector and the other sectors under the cap. The central contribution of this paper is the derivation of impact curves, which describe these interactions, i.e., the impact on allowance price and the shift of emissions across sectors. From a set of detailed simulations of the electric power system operation, a so-called “emission plane” is obtained, from which impact curves can be derived. Focus is on interactions between CO₂ abatement through fuel switching and measures affecting the residual electricity demand (such as deployment of renewables) in the electric power sector, as well as on interactions with other sectors, both in a short-term framework. A case study for Central-Western Europe is presented. The analysis reveals a substantial impact of renewables on CO₂ emissions, and hence on emissions shifts across sectors and/or on the CO₂ price.     

The role of energy-service demand reduction in global climate change mitigation: Combining energy modelling and decomposition analysis

In order to reduce energy-related CO₂ emissions different options have been considered: energy efficiency improvements, structural changes to low carbon or zero carbon fuel/technologies, carbon sequestration, and reduction in energy-service demands (useful energy). While efficiency and technology options have been extensively studied within the context of climate change mitigation, this paper addresses the possible role of price-related energy-service demand reduction. For this analysis, the elastic demand version of the TIAM–UCL global energy system model is used in combination with decomposition analysis. The results of the CO₂ emission decomposition indicate that a reduction in energy-service demand can play a limited role, contributing around 5% to global emission reduction in the 21st century. A look at the sectoral level reveals that the demand reduction can play a greater role in selected sectors like transport contributing around 16% at a global level. The societal welfare loss is found to be high when the price elasticity of demand is low.     

Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles—A low-carbon solution for Ireland?

Between 1990 and 2006, the primary energy requirement of the Irish transport sector increased by 166%. Associated greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions have followed a corresponding trajectory, and are responsible—at least in part—for Ireland’s probable failure to meet its Kyoto targets. As in most countries, Ireland’s transport sector is almost totally reliant on oil—a commodity for which Ireland is totally dependent on imports—and therefore vulnerable to supply and price shocks. Conversely, the efficiency and carbon intensity of the Irish electricity supply system have both improved dramatically over the same period, with significant further improvements projected over the coming decade. This paper analyses the prospects for leveraging these changes by increasing the electrification of the Irish transport sector. Specifically, the potential benefits of plug-in hybrid-electric vehicles (PHEV) are assessed, in terms of reducing primary energy requirement (PER) and CO₂ emissions. It is shown that, on a per-km basis, PHEV offer the potential for reductions of 50% or more in passenger car PER and CO₂ intensity. However, the time required to turn over the existing fleet means that a decade or more will be required to significantly impact PER and emissions of the PC fleet.     

Comparative assessment of CO2 capture technologies for carbon-intensive industrial processes

This article presents a consistent techno-economic assessment and comparison of CO₂ capture technologies for key industrial sectors (iron and steel, cement, petroleum refineries and petrochemicals). The assessment is based on an extensive literature review, covering studies from both industries and academia. Key parameters, e.g., capacity factor (91-97%), energy prices (natural gas: 8 €₂₀₀₇/GJ, coal: 2.5 €₂₀₀₇/GJ, grid electricity: 55 €/MWh), interest rate (10%), economic plant lifetime (20 years), CO₂ compression pressure (110 bar), and grid electricity CO₂ intensity (400 g/kWh), were standardized to enable a fair comparison of technologies. The analysis focuses on the changes in energy, CO₂ emissions and material flows, due to the deployment of CO₂ capture technologies. CO₂ capture technologies are categorized into short-mid term (ST/MT) and long term (LT) technologies. The findings of this study identified a large number of technologies under development, but it is too soon to identify which technologies would become dominant in the future. Moreover, a good integration of industrial plants and power plants is essential for cost-effective CO₂ capture because CO₂ capture may increase the industrial onsite electricity production significantly.For the iron and steel sector, 40-65 €/tCO₂ avoided may be achieved in the ST/MT, depending on the ironmaking process and the CO₂ capture technique. Advanced LT CO₂ capture technologies for the blast furnace based process may not offer significant advantages over conventional ones (30-55 €/tCO₂ avoided). Rather than the performance of CO₂ capture technique itself, low-cost CO₂ emissions reduction comes from good integration of CO₂ capture to the ironmaking process. Advanced smelting reduction with integrated CO₂ capture may enable lower steel production cost and lower CO₂ emissions than the blast furnace based process, i.e., negative CO₂ mitigation cost. For the cement sector, post-combustion capture appears to be the only commercial technology in the ST/MT and the costs are above 65 €/tCO₂ avoided. In the LT, a number of technologies may enable 25-55 €/tCO₂ avoided. The findings also indicate that, in some cases, partial CO₂ capture may have comparative advantages. For the refining and petrochemical sectors, oxyfuel capture was found to be more economical than others at 50-60 €/tCO₂ avoided in ST/MT and about 30 €/tCO₂ avoided in the LT. However, oxyfuel retrofit of furnaces and heaters may be more complicated than that of boilers.Crude estimates of technical potentials for global CO₂ emissions reduction for 2030 were made for the industrial processes investigated with the ST/MT technologies. They amount up to about 4 Gt/yr: 1 Gt/yr for the iron and steel sector, about 2 Gt/yr for the cement sector, and 1 Gt/yr for petroleum refineries. The actual deployment level would be much lower due to various constraints, about 0.8 Gt/yr, in a stringent emissions reduction scenario.     

On policy instruments for support of micro combined heat and power

The performance of residential micro combined heat and power (micro-CHP)—a technology to provide heat and some electricity to individual dwellings—is generally dependent on the magnitude of household thermal energy demand. Dwellings with larger and more consistent thermal consumption perform well economically and achieve greater greenhouse gas emissions savings. Consequently, the performance of micro-CHP is dependent on the level of thermal insulation in a dwelling. Therefore, emerging policy approaches regarding energy use in the residential sector, which generally support both energy efficiency measures such as thermal insulation and adoption of micro-CHP, may inadvertently incentivise micro-CHP installation where CO₂ reductions are meagre or not cost-effective. This article examines this issue in terms of the changes in economic and environmental performance that occur for three micro-CHP technologies under changing patterns of residential thermal insulation in the United Kingdom. The results of this analysis are used to comment on the structure of policy instruments that support micro-CHP. It is found that simultaneous support for energy efficiency measures and micro-CHP can be justified, but care must be taken to ensure that the heat-to-power ratio and capacity of the micro-CHP system are appropriate for the expected thermal demand of the target dwelling.