Potential application of renewable energy for rural electrification in Malaysia

Energy poverty and lack of electricity in rural areas exacerbate the poverty of the developing countries. In Malaysia, 3.8% of the population lives below the poverty line and most of them are settled in rural areas. The electricity coverage in poor states is about 79% in comparison with 99.62% in Peninsular Malaysia. The renewable energy sources can be considered the best alternative to reduce the energy poverty of the rural areas where the grid extension through a difficult terrain and thick jungle is not possible or economic. In this study, the potential for applying renewable sources – solar, wind and hydropower – for rural electrification is investigated, especially in the poorest States. A comparative study on rural electrification policies, in order to have community approval, appropriate siting and financial benefits for the rural community, while considering the three categories of social, institutional and economic issues, is also examined. Finally, the Malaysian policies of rural electrification by applying renewable sources are explained. It is found that in Malaysia, with a maximum solar radiation of about 6.027 kWh/m² per day in Sabah and 5.303 kWh/m² per day in Sarawak, the potential for applying solar energy for electrification is too high. However, the potential for micro-hydropower in Sabah and Sarawak is found to be 3182 kW and 6317 kW through 18 and 22 sites, respectively.     

Low-carbon off-grid electrification for rural areas in the United Kingdom: Lessons from the developing world

Low-carbon off-grid electrification for rural areas is becoming increasingly popular in the United Kingdom. However, many developing countries have been electrifying their rural areas in this way for decades. Case study fieldwork in Nepal and findings from United Kingdom based research will be used to examine how developed nations can learn from the experience of developing countries with regard to the institutional environment and delivery approach adopted in renewable energy off-grid rural electrification. A clearer institutional framework and more direct external assistance during project development are advised. External coordinators should also engage the community in a mobilization process a priori to help alleviate internal conflicts of interest that could later impede a project.     

The potential of renewable energy technologies for rural development in Lesotho

The potential and utilization of renewable energy technologies (RETs), and energy analysis in Lesotho with emphasis on the contribution of solar energy technologies (SETs) is presented. The heavy reliance of the country on imported fossil fuel coupled with the growing demand for electricity and declining wood fuel supplies call for alternative sources of energy. Taking the average global solar radiation that ranges from 15 to 20 MJ/m² and cognizant of the short falls of other renewable energy sources in Lesotho, this paper focuses on the application of solar energy and associated developmental issues. The paper provides a statistical analysis of the energy demand and identifies areas of further growth for SETs. Various application areas of solar energy and their contribution to development in Lesotho together with future prospects for use of solar energy are also discussed. An analysis of the relative merits of using photovoltaic (PV) devices over other renewable energy sources in Lesotho is presented. It is argued that with proper economic support and utilization of efficient RETs, developing countries like Lesotho can meet their basic energy demands and alleviate the problems of energy shortages.     

Modelling an off-grid integrated renewable energy system for rural electrification in India using photovoltaics and anaerobic digestion

This work describes the design optimisation and techno-economic analysis of an off-grid Integrated Renewable Energy System (IRES) designed to meet the electrical demand of a rural village location in West Bengal – India with an overall electrical requirement equivalent to 22 MWh year⁻¹. The investigation involved the modelling of seven scenarios, each containing a different combination of electricity generation (anaerobic digestion with biogas combined heat and power (CHP) and photovoltaics) and storage elements (Vanadium redox batteries, water electrolyser and hydrogen storage with fuel cell). Micro-grid modelling software HOMER, was combined with additional modelling of anaerobic digestion, to scale each component in each scenario considering the systems' ability to give a good quality electricity supply to a rural community. The integrated system which contained all of the possible elements – except hydrogen production and storage presented the lowest capital ($US 71 k) and energy cost ($US 0.289 kWh⁻¹) compared to the scenarios with a single energy source. The biogas CHP was able to meet the electrical load peaks and variations and produced 61% of the total electricity in the optimised system, while the photovoltaics met the daytime load and allowed the charging of the battery which was subsequently used to meet base load at night.     

Constructing low emitting power systems through grid extension in Papua New Guinea (PNG) with rural electrification

The effective rural electrification method varies with economic status and geographical location, and the benefits of decentralized generation differ for each energy system depending on its characteristics. This paper evaluates the most effective generation strategies with rural electrification in an optimized power system of Papua New Guinea (PNG) using a linear programming model. The energy system model developed for the study includes decentralized generation, centralized generation, and grid systems of electricity and gas with consideration for the current energy system and infrastructure. Two methods of rural electrification, decentralized generation and grid extension, are compared with and without the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM). The results of simulations show that extending the power grid that allows economical generation such as coal-fired power and hydropower to supply rural electricity is a more cost effective way for rural electrification. Although grid extension is more capital intensive than decentralized generation, the former reduces the total system cost through reduction of the fossil fuel use. Extending the power grid is also effective at attracting CDM investments, since it makes the power system flexible and provides opportunities to advance low emitting energy such as hydropower.     

Prospects of key technologies of integrated energy systems for rural electrification in China

Owing to increasing environmental concerns and resource scarcity, integrated energy system shave become widely used in communities. Rural energy systems, as one of the important links of the energy network in China, suffer from low energy efficiency and weak infrastructure. Therefore, it is particularly important to increase the proportion of electricity consumption and build an integrated energy system for rural electrification in China (IESREIC) with a rural distribution network as the core, in line with national conditions. In this study, by analyzing the Chinese regional differences and natural resource endowments, the development characteristics of the IESREIC are summarized. Then, according to the existing rural energy problems, key technologies are proposed for the IESREIC, such as those for planning and operation, value sharing, infrastructure, and a management and control platform. Finally, IESREIC demonstration projects and business models are introduced for agricultural production, rural industrial systems, and rural life. The purpose is to propose research concepts for the IESREIC, provide suggestions for the development of rural energy, and provide a reference for the construction of rural energy systems in countries with characteristics similar to those of China.     

Decision-making between a grid extension and a rural renewable off-grid system with hydrogen generation

Most populations in rural Africa have no access to electricity, in this study, a comparative analysis between grid extension and the implementation of renewable off-grid hybrid power system is carried out. The objective of the study is to determine the best feasible option. Napier, a farming village in the Western Cape province of South Africa was selected as the site for the comparative analysis and HOMER PRO software was used to develop an optimal system using the wind and solar resources of the selected site. The load profile considered in the analysis includes lighting, cooking and hot water demands. The best feasible option is determined based on the Net Present Cost of each feasible scenario. Sensitivity analysis on the current cost and the projected cost of hydrogen storage w conducted to observe the impact of the cost of hydrogen storage on the renewable off-grid system cost of energy.     

Assessment of instruments in facilitating investment in off-grid renewable energy projects

Renewable off-grid solution plays a critical role in supporting rural electrification. However, off-grid Renewable Energy (OGRE) project financing faces significant challenges due to limited financing access, low affordability of consumers, high transactions costs and etc. Various supporting instruments have been implemented to facilitate OGRE investment. This study assesses the effectiveness of those instruments with a framework consists of three dimensions: feasibility, sustainability and replicability. The weights of each dimension in the framework and the scores of each instrument are assessed by expert surveys based on the Delphi method. It is suggested that all the three dimensions should be taken into consideration while assessing the instruments, among which feasibility and sustainability are considered as the most important dimensions in the assessment framework. Furthermore, the top-5 most effective instruments in facilitating OGRE investment are local engagement in operation and maintenance, loan guarantee, start-up grant, end user financing, and concessional finance. Developing countries that need to increase electrification, such as most of the ASEAN member states, could use these top scored instruments despite of their limited amount of public finance.     

A decision support system for technologies of rural electrification

An interactive computer program has been developed to determine and to evaluate the optimal design of electricity distribution systems in rural areas. The program considers the costs and benefits of grid electrification, isolated diesel generators and centralized photovoltaics. It provides support for decisions on choices of technology. The program optimizes within the context of long-term load and system expansion; it runs on a 384K CPU microcomputer.     

The delivery of low-cost,low-carbon rural energy services

The provision of both electrical and mechanical energy services can play a critical role in poverty alleviation for the almost two billion rural users who currently lack access to electricity. Distributed generation using diesel generators remains a common means of electricity provision for rural communities throughout the world. Due to rising fuel costs, the need to address poverty, and consequences of global warming, it is necessary to develop cost efficient means of reducing fossil fuel consumption in isolated diesel microgrids. Based on a case study in Nicaragua, a set of demand and supply side measures are ordered by their annualized costs in order to approximate an energy supply curve. The curve highlights significant opportunities for reducing the costs of delivering energy services while also transitioning to a carbon-free electrical system. In particular, the study demonstrates the significant cost savings resulting from the implementation of conventional metering, efficient residential lighting, and electricity generation using renewable energy sources.     

Modeling of integrated renewable energy system for electrification of a remote area in India

Over the years, renewable energy based power generation has proven to be a cost-effective solution in stand-alone applications in the regions where grid extension is difficult. The present study focused on the development of models for optimal sizing of integrated renewable energy (IRE) system to satisfy the energy needs in different load sectors of four different zones considered in Chamarajanagar district of Karnataka state in India. The objective of the study is to minimize the total cost of generation and cost of energy using genetic algorithm (GA) based approach. Considering optimization power factor (OPF) and expected energy not supplied (EENS), optimum system feasibility has been investigated. Based on the study, it has been found that IRES is able to provide a feasible solution between 1.0 and 0.8 OPF values. However, power deficit occurs at OPF values less than 0.8 and the proposed model becomes infeasible under such conditions. Customer interruption cost (CIC) and deficit energy (DE) for all zones were also computed to quantify the reliability of the systems.     

Application of geographical information systems to rural electrification with renewable energy sources

This paper approaches one of the main problems of rural electrification: the choice of the most appropriate technology for each case. The main objective of this project is to apply Geographical Information Systems (GIS) to divide the research zone into areas in that are more appropriate for either conventional or renewable technologies. The approaches for choosing among the different technologies are usually technical and economic; these may be jointly considered by the leveling electric cost (LEC). Determination of the LEC is a complex task that requires knowledge of the capacity factor. This paper shows the conclusions of the technical and economic parameter analysis involved in the determination of the LEC for each technology. This analysis has allowed us to carry out proposals of improvement in the methodology of the GIS of rural electrification. The resulting GIS has been verified in the municipality of Lorca (Murcia, Spain).     

A review of renewable energy activities in Yemen

Republic of Yemen is a developing country depending on oil for the energy needs. A look at the availability of renewable energy resources shows that the country is endowed with considerable solar, wind, bio-gas energy resources. This paper presents a review of activities in the field of renewable energy applications in Yemen and future trends, some suggestions and recommendations for using this renewable energy resources are also drawn.     

Financing solar thermal technologies under DSM programs: an innovative approach to promote renewable energy

A wide range of demand side management (DSM) options has been practiced so far in developed as well as in developing countries. However, solar thermal technologies have been left out from DSM programs considering them as supply side options. This study argues that a number of solar thermal technologies, which provide the same services as electric appliances, can be considered as DSM options and examines the possibility of promoting solar water heaters (SWH) under DSM programs in Thailand. The study found that installation of SWH in place of conventional electric water heaters (EWH) to meet hot water demand in the residential sector would be economically beneficial to the country as a whole. However, switching to SWH from EWH would be unlikely without having government interventions as there would be no incentives to individual consumers in doing so. If the government or state electric utilities provide funding to residential consumers through DSM programs for replacing their EWH by SWH, the total electricity generation in Thailand during the 2000–2015 period would decrease by 3.8 per cent. Moreover, promotion of SWH under DSM programs would cause 3.35 and 1.41 per cent reductions of total power sector CO₂‐ and NO_x‐emissions respectively, during the same period. This study also reveals that solar thermal technologies, especially the SWH, could be better options for DSM programs compared to the end‐use efficiency improvement options in Thailand. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Sustainability assessment of renewable energy projects for off-grid rural electrification: The Pangan-an Island case in the Philippines

Renewable energy systems (RESs) have been promoted for rural electrification as an answer to the growing energy needs of communities while simultaneously satisfying environmental and resource scarcity problems. These off-grid systems however have several challenges in the perspective of sustainability due to the technically and financially weak recipients and users of the projects. There is still, however, less detailed understanding how the technical and economic aspects of the projects can properly match the social aspects to promote sustainability. This paper aimed to further understand the challenges and social impacts of rural electrification projects using RES through a case study of a centralized off-grid solar plant in the Philippines. The study used multiple correspondence analysis (MCA) to identify essential user attributes which explain the users’ electricity consumption behaviors. The community cooperative had difficulties maintaining the facility in the long term due to financial and capacity related challenges. A holistic approach dealing with the technical, economic and social aspects in developing RES projects promote sustainability.     

Role of renewable energy technologies in rural communities' adaptation to climate change in Nepal

The aim of this paper is to analyze the role of renewable energy technologies (RETs) such as biogas, improved cooking stoves (ICSs), micro hydro (MH) and solar power (SP) in helping rural communities in Nepal to adapt to climate change. The analysis considers the energy efficiency of different RETs as well as their socio-economic and environmental impacts. The efficient use of biomass in new technology, such as biogas and ICSs for cooking, has increased energy security and reduced the negative effects of traditional biomass usage. MH and SP systems are replacing candles and kerosene lamps, and are the most promising RET models for electricity generation in rural Nepal. The improved illumination from these technologies also produces better education, health, environments, and social harmony in rural communities. This study uses the Long-range Energy Alternatives Planning model (LEAP) model to develop a plan for long-term RETs use in Nepal, and specifically focuses on household energy use in rural areas. It assesses the role of biogas and ICSs in rural communities and climate change adaptation in Nepal, along with the potential role of MH and SP technologies. According to the LEAP analysis, the planned implementation of MH for 20-year long-term will result in the reduction of 2.553 million tons of CO₂ emissions. Similarly SP, biogas, and ICSs will result in a reduction in CO₂ emissions of 5.214 million tons, 35.880 million tons, and 7.452 million tons, respectively.     

Grid electrification challenges, photovoltaic electrification progress and energy sustainability in Lesotho

Lesotho's energy profile is characterized by a predominance of traditional biomass energy to meet the energy needs of the rural households and a heavy dependence on imported petroleum for the modern economic sector needs. As a result, the country faces challenges related to unsustainable use of traditional forms of biomass and exposure to high and unstable oil import prices. There are relatively abundant renewable energy resources in the form of hydro, solar and wind. The average daily solar radiation in Lesotho varies between 4.5 and 6.5 kWh/m², with some areas in the South West averaging over 7 kWh/m²/day. Under the UNDP/GEF-supported Lesotho Renewable Energy-Based Rural Electrification (LREBRE) Project, a total of 5000 solar home systems (SHS) will be installed by 2012. Since the start of the project, a total of 1537 SHS with a capacity of 65 W have been installed, and an estimated 500 SHS have also been independently installed as a result of the project's influence. This paper examines the role of PV technologies in the sustainable development process, with particular reference to UNDP/GEF-LREBRE Lesotho PV project, and the extent to which this project is impacting on the PV industry. The paper also analyses national grid electrification and energy provision in rural areas and shows that the problem of rural electrification could be tackled by conventional and non-conventional means.     

The value of cooperatives in rural electrification

The electricity sectors of many developing countries underwent substantial reforms during the 1980s and 1990s, driven by global agendas of privatization and liberalization. However, rural electrification offered little by way of market incentives for profit-seeking private companies and was often neglected. As a consequence, delivery models for rural electrification need to change. This paper will review the experiences of various rural electrification delivery models that have been established in developing countries, including concessionary models, dealership approaches and the strengthening of small and medium-sized energy businesses. It will use examples from the USA, Bangladesh and Nepal, together with a detailed case study of a Nepali rural electric cooperative, to explore the role that local cooperatives can play in extending electricity access. It is shown that although there is no magic bullet solution to deliver rural electrification, if offered appropriate financial and institutional support, socially orientated cooperative businesses can be a willing, efficient and effective means of extending and managing rural electricity services. It is expected that this paper will be of particular value to policy-makers, donors, project planners and implementers currently working in the field of rural electrification.     

Evaluation of choices for sustainable rural electrification in developing countries: A multicriteria approach

Rural electrification (RE) can be modelled as a multifactorial task connected to a large number of variables: decision makers need to choose the appropriate options by considering not only the techno-economic competitiveness but also socio-cultural dynamics and environmental consequences, making the task intricate. Many rural electrification projects have failed due to lack of attention to the issues beyond financial and technical dimensions. This paper presents a standardized approach for decision making concerning the extension of electricity services to rural areas. This approach first determines whether the supply provision should be grid expansion or off-grid on the basis of levelized cost of delivered electricity. If the grid expansion is found nonviable over off-grid options then a multicriteria decision aiding tool, SMAA-2 (Stochastic Multicriteria Acceptability Analysis), will evaluate off-grid technologies by aggregating 24 criteria values. While applying this approach, the delivered costs of electricity by the grid in remote areas within the 1–25 km distances vary in a range of 0.10–7.85 US$/kW h depending on the line lengths and load conditions. In the off-grid evaluation, the solar PV (photovoltaic) and biogas plants are found as the most preferable alternatives with 59% and 41% acceptability in their first rank, respectively.     

Integrated renewable energy systems for off grid rural electrification of remote area

The off grid electrification by utilizing Integrated Renewable Energy System (IRES) is proposed to satisfy the electrical and cooking needs of the seven-uneletrified villages in the Almora district of Uttarakhand state, India. Four different scenarios are considered during modeling and optimization of IRES to ensure reliability parameters such as energy index ratio (EIR) and expected energy not supplied (EENS). The optimum system reliability, total system cost and cost of energy (COE) have also been worked out by introducing the customer interruption cost (CIC). The four different renewable energy scenarios have been compared for the considered study area using the LINGO software version 10. The fourth renewable energy scenario accounting 44.99% micro hydropower (MHP), 30.07% biomass, 5.19% biogas and 4.16% solar energy along with the additional resources of wind (1.27%) and energy plantation (12.33%) has been found to be the best among the different options considered. Furthermore, the optimal reliability for the fourth IRES system has been found to be 0.95 EIR at the optimized cost of Rs 19.44 lacs with estimated COE of Rs 3.36 per kWh. The COE obtained using LINGO software and HOMER software has also been compared and briefly discussed for all the four scenarios. In order to verify feasibility and cost of system for different biomass fuel prices, a sensitivity analysis has also been carried out and it has been found that the fourth scenario is more sustainable than the other considered options.