Future bio-energy potential under various natural constraints

Potentials for bio-energy have been estimated earlier on the basis of estimates of potentially available land, excluding certain types of land use or land cover (land required for food production and forests). In this paper, we explore how such estimates may be influenced by other factors such as land degradation, water scarcity and biodiversity concerns. Our analysis indicates that of the original bio-energy potential estimate of 150, 80 EJ occurs in areas classified as from mild to severe land degradation, water stress, or with high biodiversity value. Yield estimates were also found to have a significant impact on potential estimates. A further 12.5% increase in global yields would lead to an increase in bio-energy potential of about 50%. Changes in bio-energy potential are shown to have a direct impact on bio-energy use in the energy model TIMER, although the relevant factor is the bio-energy potential at different cost levels and not the overall potential.     

Project ARBRE: Lessons for bio-energy developers and policy-makers

Project Arable Biomass Renewable Energy (ARBRE) was a ‘flagship’ project in the UK to demonstrate electricity generation from dedicated energy crops, employing the high efficiency of gasification combined cycle technology while also contributing to the waste management problem of sewage disposal. The plant never reached commercial operation and this paper provides the first detailed public account of the reasons, drawing on interviews with the main actors. Project ARBRE failed due to three unfortunate developments: the withdrawal for reasons of commercial strategy of the main company that initiated and financed the project; bankruptcy of the turnkey contractor appointed to oversee the project; and technical problems with the gasification technology, which could not be resolved within the financial and time constraints. All these factors acted in reinforcing manner and they were individually preventable: documenting the process of failure is a learning experience that can prevent their recurrence.     

The scientometric evaluation of the research on the algae and bio-energy

The present study explores the characteristics of the literature on the algae and bio-energy published during the last three decades, based on the database of Science Citation Index-Expanded (SCIE) and Social Sciences Citation Index (SSCI) and its implications using the scientometric techniques. The results of this work reveal that the literature on the algae and bio-energy has grown exponentially during this period reaching 717 papers in total. Most of document type is in the form of journal articles, reviews, and proceedings, constituting 98% of the total literature and English is the predominant language (97.6%). USA, China, Germany, and England are the four biggest contributing countries on the algae and bio-energy literature publishing, 26%, 8%, 8%, and 8% of the sample, respectively. The Chinese Academy of Sciences is the largest institutional contributor publishing 2.6% of the papers. The most publishing four authors are Wilhelm (13 papers) followed by Wu (15 papers), Mimuro (10 papers), and Zhao (9 papers). “Bioresource Technology” is the most publishing journal with 24 published papers, followed by “Journal of Applied Phycology” (17 papers), and “Biotechnology and Bioengineering” (15 papers). “Biotechnology & Applied Microbiology” is the subject area with 24.3% of the sample published. This is followed by “Energy & Fuels” (16.3%), “Marine & Freshwater Biology” (14.2%), and “Environmental Sciences” (12.3%). The total number of citations is 11,079, giving a ratio for the “Average Citations per Item” as 15.45 and “H-index” as 52. A list of most-cited 25 authors is produced and Chisti (2007) receives 320 citations with 80 total average citations per year. This paper is followed by Lewis and Nocera (2006; 296 citations), Demirbas (2001; 187 citations). Chisti (2007) has the highest impact on the literature on the algae and energy with total average citations per year of 80. This is followed by Lewis and Nocera (2006, 59.8 annual citations) and Chisti (2008, 41 annual citations). An analysis of the citing papers shows the impact of the research on the algae and bio-energy for the related academic disciplines. This provides further incentives for all the stakeholders of the research on the algae and energy, but especially for the researchers and their institutions and their countries to do more research in this area. The results of this first ever such study of its kind show that the scientometric analysis has a great potential to gain valuable insights into the evolution of the research the on algae and bio-energy as in the case of new emerging technologies and processes such as nanoscience and nanotechnology complementing literature reviews, content analysis and metaanalysis research techniques.     

A study of the development of bio-energy resources and the status of eco-society in China

Industrialization of bio-energy relies on the supply of resources on a large scale. The theoretical biomass resources could reach 2.61–3.51 billion tce (tons of coal equivalent)/a in China, while the available feedstock is about 440–640 million tce/a, however, among this only 1.5–2.5% has been transferred into energy at present. Marginal land utilization has great prospects of supplying bio-energy resources in China, with co-benefits, such as carbon sequestration, water/soil conservation, and wind erosion protection. There is a large area of marginal land in China, especially in northern China, including about 263 million ha of desertification land, 173 million ha of sand-land, and 17 million ha of salinizatin land. The plant species suitable to be grown in marginal lands, including some species in Salix, Hippophae, Tamarix, Caragana, and Prunus is also abundant Biomass feedstock in marginal lands would be 100 million tce/a in 2020, and 200 million tce/a in 2050. As a result, a win–win situation of eco-society and bio-energy development could be realized, with an expected 4–5% reduction of total CO₂ emission in China in 2020–2050. Although much progress has been made in the field of bio-energy research in China, yet significant efforts should be taken in the future to fulfill large-scale industrialization of bio-energy.     

Chinese university students’ knowledge and attitudes regarding forest bio-energy

The present study examines Chinese university students’ attitudes and knowledge regarding energy, specifically towards forest bio-energy in their country. The study was based on opinions of students from Northwest Agriculture and Forestry University (NWAFU) in China and it was conducted using a questionnaire completed by 441 students. The students’ attitudes are seen as highly relevant because they are considered as both potential consumers and possible experts in the field of bio-energy. Their activities influence how the future energy markets will likely develop. The results revealed various interesting facets of the students’ views regarding energy usage. Of particular interest is the students’ positive attitude towards renewable energy in general, but slightly less positive towards forest bio-energy. However, the respondents expected to receive more information and knowledge about renewable energy and forest bio-energy. Moreover, it can be concluded that the dissemination of knowledge through different sources (e.g. teaching in school, information available on the Internet and other media channels) is an increasingly important aspect regarding energy issues. The results of this study can provide information of the perceptions of young educated people on energy policy issues and thus serve political decision-making processes for the future options concerning the development of forest bio-energy in China. Finally, the outcome of this study indicates that further environmental and energy education in China is urgently needed.     

External governance and the EU policy for sustainable biofuels,the case of Mozambique

Growing demand for transport biofuels in the EU is driving an expansion of the industry in developing countries. Large-scale production of energy crops for biofuel, if mismanaged, could cause detrimental environmental and social impacts. The aim of this study is to examine whether the newly adopted EU Directive 2009/28/EC and its sustainability certification system can effectively ensure sustainable production of biofuels outside the EU. Mozambique, a least developed country with biofuels ambitions, is selected as empirical case. The effectiveness of the EU policy in analysed employing ideal models of external governance (hierarchical, market and network governance) as analytical framework. The findings show that the EU attempts to impose its rules and values on sustainable biofuels using its leverage through trade. The market approach adopted by the EU is expected to produce only unstable (subject to abrupt changes of market prices and demand) and thin (limited to climate and biodiversity issues) policy results. Stronger emphasis on a network oriented approach based on substantial involvement of foreign actors, and on international policy legitimacy is suggested as a way forward.     

Soil disturbance concerns regarding the use of forest biomass as a source of energy: Examples from Pacific Northwestern North America

Increased biomass removals may affect long-term site productivity and hydrologic function through harvesting effects on soils. This paper reviews the current soil disturbance context for biomass harvesting in the Pacific Northwest of North America, and discusses environmental sustainability concerns that should be of interest to all parties involved in the generation or purchase of bio-energy. In the Pacific Northwest many dense stands of low-value timber exist and are seen by some as a source of cheap biomass energy; however, intensive biomass harvest may involve more machine traffic during harvest, increasing concerns about protection of the soil resource. Both the United States Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, and British Columbia Forest Service have developed and implemented soil quality standards to keep activity-induced soil disturbance within defined limits. Examples of soil disturbance data collected over the past 20 years from various harvesting systems are discussed to demonstrate the higher-than-usual level of disturbance that can occur from biomass harvesting. Comparison of such monitoring results within or between forest management jurisdictions is often difficult because of differing definitions of detrimental soil disturbance and different soil disturbance assessment protocols. Recommendations are provided regarding more comparable and rigorous means of conducting soil quality assessments, including common terminology, which are needed to enable demonstration that long-term productivity and hydrologic function are being protected during biomass harvest under various international protocols and their respective criteria and indicators, and third-party certification schemes.     

Leading global energy and environmental transformation: Unified ASEAN biomass-based bio-energy system incorporating the clean development mechanism

In recent years, the ten member countries in the Association of Southeast Asia Nations (ASEAN) have experienced high economic growth and, in tandem, a substantial increment in energy usage and demand. Consequently, they are now under intense pressure to secure reliable energy supplies to keep up with their growth rate. Fossil fuels remain the primary source of energy for the ASEAN countries, due to economic and physical considerations. This situation has led to unrestrained emissions of greenhouse gases to the environment and thus effectively contributes to global climate change. The abundant supply of biomass from their tropical environmental conditions offers great potential for ASEAN countries to achieve self-reliance in energy supplies. This fact can simultaneously transform into the main driving force behind combating global climate change, which is associated with the usage of fossil fuels. This research article explores the potential and advantages for ASEAN investment in biomass-based bio-energy supply, processing and distribution network with an emphasis on regional collaborations. It also investigates the implementation and operational challenges in terms of political, economic and technical factors for the cross-border energy scheme. Reliance of ASEAN countries on the clean development mechanism (CDM) to address most of the impediments in developing the project is also under scrutiny. Unified co-operation among ASEAN countries in integrating biomass-based bio-energy systems and utilising the clean development mechanism (CDM) as the common effort could serve as the prime example for regional partnerships in achieving sustainable development for the energy and environmental sector in the future.     

Governance and legitimacy aspects of the UK biofuel carbon and sustainability reporting system

Biofuel policy has become highly contentious in Europe. In this paper we discuss the governance and legitimacy aspects of the carbon and sustainability system of the UK Renewable Transport Fuel Obligation (RTFO), both before and after implementation of the Renewable Energy Directive. RTFO certification is of a meta-type, being built upon existing certification and labelling schemes, each of which are more or less contested by NGOs. Despite the RTFO being based on these non-state initiatives, so far the concerns of environment and development NGOs and others have not been given serious expression in regulatory terms. Indeed, biofuel policy development in the UK has arguably been unduly non-responsive to critical opinion, given the limited scientific base on biofuel impacts and the reliance of RTFO sustainability certification on non-state actors and schemes. Drawing on documentary evidence, interviews and three sets of literatures – co-production of regulation; post-normal science; and legitimacy of non-state certification and labelling processes – we suggest that until concerned voices are given a stronger expression in UK and EC biofuel policy development, the policy cannot yet be said to have achieved a wide social mandate.     

Multicriteria analysis to evaluate the energetic reuse of riparian vegetation

The management of riparian vegetation which includes cutting operations of grass, reeds, bushes and trees, is very important to reduce hydrogeologic risk.In Tuscany, riparian biomass and residues are mainly left shredded along courses or disposed in landfills as special wastes: actually different laws prohibit that tree trunks are abandoned in areas naturally affected by flooding, because they can be moved contributing to increase the water level and to maximize the hydraulic risk of some other nearby areas. In some cases, it is also possible to store the logs in specified sites from where they can be taken and used as a fuel in fireplaces or domestic heating plants.This work studies the possibility of the reuse of riparian vegetation as biomass for energy production and evaluates benefits and drawbacks from the economical, environmental and managerial points of view. Particularly, a specific methodology has been developed for two hydrological districts of Tuscany, with different typologies and densities of vegetation. First, an estimation of biomass distribution on the land and an evaluation of annual wood availability have been carried out; then, different chains concerning harvesting operation, biomass transport, storage conditions and final utilisation, have been defined and compared by a specific multicriteria analysis (MCA); finally, for the most suitable bio-energy chains the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) has been implemented. Results of the LCA have also permitted to validate some environmental indicators used in the MCA, as mechanisation level of yards, energy efficiency of plants or transport distances.The decision making tool developed allows to compare costs and environmental benefits of the energy use of riparian vegetation, supporting local authorities involved in energy planning: in this way it is possible to confront different alternatives to match the energy demand and meet the energy saving and sustainability issues at the lowest cost for the community.In conclusion, the most interesting bio-energy chains, based on technology of direct combustion, are those that require a limited forestry mechanisation, the short transport distances and the medium sized plants. The LCA applied to these most suitable chains has also shown significant environmental benefits to promote the energetic use of riparian biomass instead of fossil fuels.     

欧美日发达国家治理雾霾的经验和启示

2013年,我国雾霾天气的频繁出现引起了世界各国的关注。西方发达国家在工业化时期也曾遭遇过雾霾天气的袭扰,欧美日发达国家在治理雾霾天气上已形成一些有效的经验,值得像中国这样的发展中国家借鉴。详细介绍了英国、美国、德国和日本治理雾霾的做法和经验,在此基础上总结出一些值得我国借鉴的启示：建立健全相关法律法规,确保有法必依、执法必严;完善空气质量监测体系,出台雾霾天气应急方案;注重城市绿化;大力发展新能源汽车、公共交通和绿色交通;淘汰落后产能,节能降耗等。     

Cornerstones of a renewable energy law for emerging markets in South America

Since 1990, effective support schemes for renewable energies have been introduced mainly in European countries. In this article, the authors explain which consequences different general conditions could have on the design and functioning of feed-in laws. Cornerstones for an adjusted feed-in law to the particular general conditions of emerging and developing countries in South America will be drawn, which should give support to the decision-makers for designing an attuned and well-functioning feed-in legislation.     

Bio-energy in China: Content analysis of news articles on Chinese professional internet platforms

The aim of this study is to discuss how information about the development and use of bio-energy is forwarded and disseminated to general public via the Internet in China. Furthermore, this study also explores in what manner the information of renewable energy policies is presented. A research method used in this study is an application of content analysis. Altogether 19 energy-related web platforms were found by searching keywords, such as “energy net” or “renewable energy net” or “bio-energy net” on www.Google.cn. A thorough analysis was conducted by focusing on one of them: www.china5e.com. The news articles on www.china5e.com were examined according to whether the use of bio-energy was articulated positively or negatively in the contents of articles. It was also considered whether the articles were imported from abroad. The results of this study indicated that in China there is a tendency on the Internet to disseminate primarily the positive information about bio-energy with a great emphasis on its benefits. In addition, the study shows that when analyzing the content of the news articles, biogas and liquid bio-fuels will be the main bio-energy development trends in China in the near future.     

山东省生物质能源科技创新发展机制研究

叙述了山东生物质能源科技发展的政策环境、发展现状以及发展机制中存在的障碍。提出了构建山东生物质能源科技创新发展机制的模型、五大子机制以及三大基础支撑的思路。     

Bio-energy and youth: Analyzing the role of school,home, and media from the future policy perspectives

The study investigated the relationships between students’ perceived information on bio-energy from school, home and media and their perceptions, attitudes, and knowledge regarding bio-energy. The study also analyzed the scope of future policies to raise awareness among young students about bio-energy. Data drawn from 495 Finnish students studying in ninth grade revealed that the students were more positive in their attitudes towards bio-energy compared to their perceptions of it. They were very positive about learning about bio-energy, while not so eager towards its utilization. It appeared that school, home, and media all had statistically significant effects on students’ perceptions, attitudes, and level of knowledge related to bio-energy. Three principal components emerged from students’ perceptions and attitudes towards bio-energy viz. ‘motivation’ revealing students’ eagerness to know more about bio-energy; ‘considering sustainability’ revealing their criticality of forest bio-energy; and ‘utilization’ revealing their state of interests to use bio-energy. Bio-energy policies to be effective must consider the role of school, home, and media as important means to engage young students in bio-energy related discussions. It is also desirable to establish interactions between energy and educational policies to integrate the modern renewable energy concepts in the school curriculum.     

对中国石油在巴西发展生物能源的思考

本文通过对巴西生物能源市场现状进行分析和机会筛选,对标国际石油公司在巴西开展生物能源的成绩和进展,利用奥利模型分析了中国石油投资巴西生物能源市场的投资优势,提出开展生物能源和常规能源一体化方案评估、建立生物能源合资公司、发挥中国石油一体化优势及做好本地化经营等相关建议。     

Cost/benefit analysis of biomass energy supply options for rural smallholders in the semi-arid eastern part of Shinyanga Region in Tanzania

This study analyzes the economic feasibility of sustainable smallholder bio-energy production under semi-arid conditions. The eastern part of Shinyanga region in Tanzania was chosen as a case study area. Three different sustainable biomass energy supply systems were compared by means of cost/benefit analysis: a small-scale forestation project for carbon sequestration, a short rotation woodlot and a Jatropha plantation, thereby using the produced Jatropha oil as a substitute for fuelwood or diesel. Rotational woodlots are most profitable with a Net Present Value of up to US$₂₀₀₇ 1165/ha, a return on labour of up to US$₂₀₀₇ 6.69/man-day and a fuelwood production cost of US$₂₀₀₇ 0.53/GJ, compared to a local market price of US$₂₀₀₇ 1.95/GJ. With a production cost of US$₂₀₀₇ 19.60/GJ, Jatropha oil is too expensive to be used as an alternative for fuelwood. Instead it can be utilized economically as a diesel substitute, at an observed diesel cost of US$₂₀₀₇ 1.49/l. The mean annual biomass increment (MAI) in semi-arid East Shinyanga is too low to collect sufficient benefits from trading forestation carbon credits under the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) to cover the costs of forestation and forest management.     

The role of surface reactions on the active and selective catalyst design for bioethanol steam reforming

In order to study the role of surface reactions involved in bioethanol steam reforming mechanism, a very active and selective catalyst for hydrogen production was analysed. The highest activity was obtained at 700 °C, temperature at which the catalyst achieved an ethanol conversion of 100% and a selectivity to hydrogen close to 70%. It also exhibited a very high hydrogen production efficiency, higher than 4.5 mol H₂ per mol of EtOH fed. The catalyst was operated at a steam to carbon ratio (S/C) of 4.8, at 700 °C and atmospheric pressure. No by-products, such as ethylene or acetaldehyde were observed. In order to consider a further application in an ethanol processor, a long-term stability test was performed under the conditions previously reported. After 750 h, the catalyst still exhibited a high stability and selectivity to hydrogen production. Based on the intermediate products detected by temperature programmed desorption and reaction (TPD and TPR) experiments, a reaction pathway was proposed. Firstly, the adsorbed ethanol is dehydrogenated to acetaldehyde producing hydrogen. Secondly, the adsorbed acetaldehyde is transformed into acetone via acetic acid formation. Finally, acetone is reformed to produce hydrogen and carbon dioxide, which were the final reaction products. The promotion of such reaction sequence is the key to develop an active, selective and stable catalyst, which is the technical barrier for hydrogen production by ethanol reforming.     

Carbon markets and low-carbon investment in emerging economies: A synthesis of parallel workshops in Brazil and India

While policy experiments targeted at energy and innovation transitions have not been deployed consistently across all countries, market mechanisms such as carbon pricing have been tested over the past decade in disparate development contexts, and therefore provide some opportunities for analysis. This brief communication reports on two parallel workshops recently held in Sao Paulo, Brazil and New Delhi, India to address questions of how well these carbon pricing policies have worked in affecting corporate decisions to invest in low-carbon technology. Convening practitioners and scholars from multiple countries, the workshops elicited participants' perspectives on business investment decisions under international carbon markets in emerging economies across multiple energy-intensive sectors. We review the resulting perspectives on low-carbon policies and present guidance on a research agenda that could clarify how international and national policies could help encourage both energy transitions and energy innovations in emerging economies.