External costs from electricity generation of China up to 2030 in energy and abatement scenarios

This paper presents estimated external costs of electricity generation in China under different scenarios of long-term energy and environmental policies. Long-range Energy Alternatives Planning (LEAP) software is used to develop a simple model of electricity demand and to estimate gross electricity generation in China up to 2030 under these scenarios. Because external costs for unit of electricity from fossil fuel will vary in different government regulation periods, airborne pollutant external costs of SO₂, NO_x, PM₁₀, and CO₂ from fired power plants are then estimated based on emission inventories and environmental cost for unit of pollutants, while external costs of non-fossil power generation are evaluated with external cost for unit of electricity. The developed model is run to study the impact of different energy efficiency and environmental abatement policy initiatives that would reduce total energy requirement and also reduce external costs of electricity generation. It is shown that external costs of electricity generation may reduce 24–55% with three energy policies scenarios and may further reduce by 20.9–26.7% with two environmental policies scenarios. The total reduction of external costs may reach 58.2%.     

Using climate classification to evaluate building energy performance

Traditional benchmarking of building energy performance usually starts by considering a wide range of different factors and giving these factors different weights to help reach one general indicator measuring a building’s overall energy performance. For obtaining more specific information in building energy management performance, this paper proposes an adjustment to the traditional approach by using climate classification and data envelopment analysis (DEA). The study first adopts cluster analysis to classify the evaluated buildings into different climate clusters. Secondly, scale factors are identified by regression analysis. DEA is then employed to assess the energy management efficiency of the evaluated buildings. The samples of 122 office buildings in Taiwan in summer are classified into three climate clusters (warm and long rain hour, hot and middle rain hour, and hot and short rain hour). Research results indicate that the average indicators of energy management performance in each of the three climate clusters are 0.5, 0.56, and 0.56 respectively. The lower value indicator of energy management performance, resulted from the comparison between the energy consumption of the evaluated building and the minimum energy consumption among buildings in the same scale and similar climate conditions, indicates a more potential in energy saving.     

Contribution of green labels in electricity retail markets to fostering renewable energy

In European countries, retailers are obliged to disclose the energy source and the related environmental impacts of their portfolio over the preceding year. The electricity supplied in the Dutch retail market is presented as renewable energy for 34%, but this relatively high share is for 69% based on certificates (Guarantees of Origin) which are imported from in particular Norway. The certificates are used to sell green electricity to consumers. The premium for green electricity which is actually paid by Dutch consumers is no more than a few percentages of the retail price. The low level of this premium is related to the abundant supply of certificates at low marginal costs from Norway. This also means that the premium for green electricity is too low to give an incentive for investments in new capacity. Hence, the current labelling system for renewable electricity is mainly valuable, besides being an instrument for tracking and tracing of renewable energy, as a marketing instrument for electricity retailers. The effectiveness of Guarantees of Origin as a policy instrument to foster renewable electricity sources is weak. This effectiveness can be raised by implementing restrictions on the international trade or the issuance of new certificates.     

可再生能源电厂并网对地区电网的影响

生物质能发电、风电、水电等可再生能源机组的并网将改变地区原有的电力系统的特性.文章从地区电网的动态稳定性、供电可靠性、调度运行、网供负荷预测、电能质量等方面就可再生能源电厂并网对地区电网的影响进行了分析,对如何消除不利影响,实现电网安全、稳定、经济地运行,提出了一些对策.     

Estimating the value of wind energy using electricity locational marginal price

There is an increasing interest in adding renewables such as wind to electricity generation portfolios in larger amounts as one response to concern about atmospheric carbon emissions from our energy system and the resulting climate change. Most policies with the aim of promoting renewables (e.g., RPS, FIT) do not explicitly address siting issues, which for wind energy are currently approached as the intersection of wind resource, land control, and transmission factors. This work proposes the use of locational marginal price (LMP), the location and time specific cost of electricity on the wholesale market, to signal locations where generation can address electricity system insufficiency. After an examination of the spatial and temporal behavior of LMP in Michigan over the first two years of wholesale market operation, this work combines LMP with wind speed data to generate a value metric. High value sites in Michigan tend to be sites with higher wind speeds, with the bulk of value accruing in the fall and winter seasons.     

GIS approach to the definition of capacity and generation ceilings of renewable energy technologies

There are no discrepancies about the advantages of achieving a sustainable energy system based on locally available natural resources. However, supporters of green energy generation system were lacking some scientific and consistent study to defend their proposals. In order to have such a study, Greenpeace commissioned Technology Research Institute at the Pontificia Comillas University to carry out a study to assess ceilings for the potential and generation of renewable technologies in Spain. It demonstrates firstly a far greater renewable potential than the targets set by long term policies, and secondly, the viability of meeting the entire electricity demand projected for 2050. GIS was used to add the geographical dimension to the original project in order to generate a technical analysis linked to the specific constrictions imposed by territory (natural and anthropogenic) and not just designed to cover a certain demand. Therefore, GIS spatial analysis took into account local conditions producing a more accurate assessment than evaluations made upon “virtual” electrical spaces. This approach could be applied to other small scale general studies in order to assess the maximum contribution of renewable energy sources to particular energy generation mix and to help set development policies supporting high participation of renewable technologies.     

Quantifying the uncertainty of wave energy conversion device cost for policy appraisal: An Irish case study

Wave Energy Conversion (WEC) devices are at a pre-commercial stage of development with feasibility studies sensitive to uncertainties surrounding assumed input costs. This may affect decision making. This paper analyses the impact these uncertainties may have on investor, developer and policymaker decisions using an Irish case study. Calibrated to data present in the literature, a probabilistic methodology is shown to be an effective means to carry this out. Value at Risk (VaR) and Conditional Value at Risk (CVaR) metrics are used to quantify the certainty of achieving a given cost or return on investment. We analyse the certainty of financial return provided by the proposed Irish Feed-in Tariff (FiT) policy. The influence of cost reduction through bulk discount is also discussed, with cost reduction targets for developers identified. Uncertainty is found to have a greater impact on the profitability of smaller installations and those subject to lower rates of cost reduction. This paper emphasises that a premium is required to account for cost uncertainty when setting FiT rates. By quantifying uncertainty, a means to specify an efficient premium is presented.     

A new ship energy management algorithm to the smart electricity grid system

In this paper, a new energy management algorithm has been suggested for the ships connected with alternative energies considering the smart electricity grid features. The algorithm focuses on the use of optimum energy source on the shipboard based on the priorities of authorities such as the most economic, environmental, or both criteria at the ports. The algorithm is performed in MATLAB, and several case studies are simulated to validate the results. The 5 maritime nations, which are at different regions: United States, Belgium, Turkey, China, and Australia, are taken into account in the case studies. The actual data of a bulk carrier ship have been used to achieve tangible results in the simulations. The results of the case studies are compared to determine the changes of energy cost and released emission to meet demand of electricity on the ships. Capital cost of the proposed concept is also given to make an economic evaluation. The results show that the ship energy management algorithm provides the significant economic and environmental advantages. This paper aims to contribute to the importance of the ships in the smart electricity grid concept for the maritime and electricity sector representatives.     

The impact of wave energy farms in the shoreline wave climate: Portuguese pilot zone case study using Pelamis energy wave devices

This paper describes the study of the impact of energy absorption by wave farms on the nearshore wave climate and, in special, the influence of the incident wave conditions and the number and position of the wave farms, on the nearshore wave characteristics is studied and discussed. The study was applied to the maritime zone at the West coast off Portugal, namely in front of São Pedro de Moel, where it is foreseen the deployment of offshore wave energy prototypes and farms between the 30 m and 90 m bathymetric lines, with an area of 320 Km². In this study the REFDIF model was adapted in order to model the energy extraction by wave farms. Three different sinusoidal incident wave conditions were considered. Five different wave farm configurations, varying the position of the wave farm, its number and the width of the navigation channels at each wave farm were analysed. The results for each configuration in terms of the change of the wave characteristics (wave height and wave direction) at the nearshore are presented, compared and discussed for three representative wave conditions.     

Simple tool to evaluate the impact of daylight on building energy consumption

This paper presents a simple building simulation tool for integrated daylight and thermal analysis. The tool is capable of importing the thermal and visual properties for different glazings and shading positions from the Window Information System (WIS) program. A coupled ray-tracing and radiosity methodology is used to derive the daylight levels for different sky conditions. Both detailed daylight distribution for a particular day and time and hourly discrete values on a yearly basis may be obtained. For an integrated simulation the hourly daylight levels are fed into an existing simple thermal simulation program capable of calculating energy demand and the indoor environment. Straightforward control systems for general and task lighting systems have been implemented together with a shading control strategy that adjusts the shading according to the indoor operative temperature, the risk of glare and the profile angle of the sun. The implemented daylight calculation method allows for shades from the window recess and overhang, and for distant shades blocking the sky vault. Comparisons with the ray-tracing program Radiance show that the accuracy of this approach is adequate for predicting the energy implications of photoresponsive lighting control. The amount of input is small, which makes the tool useful for integrated daylight optimisation in the early design process.     

Using network analysis to understand public policy for wave energy

The UK′s wave energy sector is at a pre-commercial stage transitioning from prototype/demonstration towards a revenue supported industry. A host of advantages that could be realised through successful commercialisation include; the potential to generate 40–50 TWh/yr, £3.7bn of export, and 10,000+ jobs by 2020 (with tidal). Despite this, criticisms have been made about the lack of; coordination between funding bodies, communication between stakeholders and overly centralised actors. Although the value of strong problem solving networks has been noted, problems arise in validating the presence, nature and value of relationships as well as identification of tacit and informal linkages. Here network analysis is used to validate these criticisms and provide insight into sector activities. It is shown that although high levels of interaction are occurring overall, there are wide disparities. Prime movers are clearly present and less mature developers are isolated from the system as it develops norms and practices. This, combined with government fund gating has led to a Matthew effect whereby some have access to finance and are shaping institutional norms while others struggle. Although convergence is expected, a lack of public sector coordination, transparency of decision making and comparability between devices has reduced both investor and stakeholder legitimacy.     

The importance of marginal cost electricity pricing to the success of greenhouse gas reduction programs

The efficient reduction of GHG emissions requires appropriate retail pricing of off-peak electricity. However, off-peak electricity for residential consumers is priced at 331% above its marginal cost in the United States as a whole (June 2009). Even for the 1% of residences that are on some form of time-of-use (TOU) rate schedule, the off-peak rate is almost three times higher than the marginal cost. A barrier to marginal-cost based TOU rates is that less than 9% of U.S. households have the “smart” meters in place that can measure and record the time of consumption. Policies should be put in place to achieve full deployment. Another important barrier is consumer concern about TOU rate design. Two TOU rate designs (baseline and two-part tariff) are described that utilize marginal-cost based rates, ensure appropriate cost recovery, and minimize bill changes from current rate structures. A final barrier is to get residences on to these rates. Should a marginal-cost based TOU rate design remain an alternative for which residences could “opt-in,” or become the default choice, or become mandatory? Time-invariant rates are a historical anachronism that subsidize very costly peak-period consumption and penalize off-peak usage to our environmental detriment. They should be phased out.     

Exergoenvironmental analysis for evaluation of the environmental impact of energy conversion systems

To improve the ecological performance of energy conversion systems, it is essential to understand the formation of environmental impact at component level. A method has been developed that (a) reveals the extent to which each component of an energy conversion system is responsible for the overall environmental impact and (b) identifies the sources of the impact. The approach of exergoeconomic analysis is modified to deal with an evaluation of the ecological impact instead of an economic problem. The basic idea is that exergy represents a proper basis for allocating both costs and environmental impact to components of energy conversion processes.     

Performance of the Dutch Energy Sector based on energy, exergy and Extended Exergy Accounting

The performance of the Dutch Energy Sector is analyzed using the Standard Exergy Analysis as well as Extended Exergy Accounting (EEA) method. Performance indicators based on energy, exergy and cumulative exergy consumption (CExC) are evaluated for three subsectors: exploitation, transformation, and distribution of energy. It is shown that performance indicators based on CExC are much lower than those based on energy and exergy concepts. The EEA method is applied for analysis of four branches: cokeries and refineries, refineries, central electricity production, and distribution and decentral electricity production. The EEA method originally proposed by Sciubba is modified by evaluating the cost-to-exergy conversion factor from the monetary value and CExC of the feedstock. It was found that the monetary equivalent of extended exergy is higher than the respective product sales. Finally, it is shown that performance indicators of selected energy branches based on extended exergy are much lower than those based on the CExC.     

The European renewable energy target for 2030 – An impact assessment of the electricity sector

The European Union set binding targets for the reduction of greenhouse gases (GHG) and the share of renewable energy (RE) in final energy consumption by 2020. The European Council agreed to continue with this strategy through to 2030 by setting a RE target of 27% in addition to a GHG reduction target of 40%. We provide a detailed sectoral impact assessment by analyzing the implications for the electricity sector in terms of economic costs and the regional distribution of investments and shares of electricity generated from renewable energy sources (RES-E). According to the Impact Analysis by the European Commission the 27% RE target corresponds to a RES-E share of 49%. Our model-based sensitivity analysis on underlying technological and institutional assumptions shows that the cost-effective RES-E share varies between 43% and 56%. Secondly, we quantify the economic costs of these variants and those which would be incurred with higher shares. The long-term additional costs for higher RES-E shares would be less than 1% of total system costs. The third aspect relates to the regional distribution of EU-wide efforts for upscaling renewables. We point out that delivering high RES-E shares in a cost-effective manner involves considerably different efforts by the Member States.     

Exploring the impact on cost and electricity production of high penetration levels of intermittent electricity in OECD Europe and the USA,results for wind energy

In this study we explore for the USA and OECD Europe (OECD Europe includes the countries that participate in the Organisation of Economic Cooperation and Development, among which Western Europe, USA and Japan) dynamic changes in electricity production, cost and CO₂ emissions when intermittent electricity sources are used with increasing penetration levels. The methodology developed can be applied for both solar photovoltaic (PV) and wind energy. Here the focus of the results is on penetration of wind electricity in the electricity system as simulated in a long-term model experiment in which the electricity demand is kept constant over time. All important parameter are included in a sensitivity analysis. With increasing penetration levels the cost reduction of wind electricity caused by upscaling and technological learning is counteracted by the cost increase due to (1) the need for additional back-up capacity, (2) the need to generate wind electricity at less favourable sites, and (3) discarded wind electricity because of supply–demand mismatch. This occurs after about 20% wind electricity production as percentage of current electricity production. At this level about 500 (OECD Europe) and 750 (USA) TWh yr⁻¹ wind electricity is absorbed in the system with the electricity demand of the year 2000. Wind electricity is found to be discarded when the production is about 55 (USA) to 10 times (OECD Europe) the present electricity produced from wind power. Beyond 30% of present electricity production, cost increases most significantly because of discarded wind electricity, excluding storage. In both regions the use of wind electricity would mainly avoid use of natural gas. The CO₂ emissions abatement costs range from 14 (OECD Europe) to 33 (USA) $ per ton CO₂ differ in both regions due to a faster wind electricity cost increase in OECD Europe.     

The impact of energy efficiency programs on the growth of electricity sales

With increasing concern about carbon dioxide emissions from power generation, high natural gas costs for generating electricity, and rapidly increasing costs of constructing new power plants, energy efficiency programs are being given greater consideration by utilities and regulators. This study reports on a statistical analysis of the relationship between state-level efficiency program effort and growth in electricity sales between 2001 and 2006 in the United States. The higher the utility efficiency program expenditures per capita and the greater the range of other efficiency programs offered, the greater the reduction in the growth of power sales. Application of the portfolio of energy efficiency programs used in the states with most aggressive programs would have reduced the growth in a state's electricity sales by about 60% relative to the case where no efficiency programs were implemented.     

Merging electricity and environment politics of Hong Kong: Identifying the barriers from the ways that sustainability is defined

The present paper presents a study of the electricity policy of Hong Kong in an environmental–political context. Through a critical review of the policy structure and rationale, it identifies the barriers to developing a truly sustainable electricity policy system and is expected to shed light on the forthcoming electricity market reform in the territory. The barriers stem from the path-dependent institutional set-ups that restrict a timely transformation of the roles of the actors. And this is coupled with the government's treatment that does not look beyond these structural constraints, overly appreciating scientific and economic rationalities than communicative actions. The author is of the view that these are intensified by the sharp changes in the local political economy. Positive signs of change are dampened by the minimal progress in democratic development in the near future and the extension of the power companies’ monopolist status that will ruin the ‘trust’ between the stakeholders compounding the guilt of those rigid regulatory constraints.     

A quadratic helix approach to evaluate the Turkish renewable energies

The first renewable energy law concerning the ‘Use of Renewable Energy Resources for the Generation of Electrical Energy’ was adopted from European Union regulations on 18 May 2005 in Turkey. The purpose of the Law is to expand the utilization of renewable energy resources for generating electricity. Renewables are defined in the Law as generation facilities based on wind, solar, geothermal, biomass, biogas, wave, current and tidal energy resources, hydrogen energy and hydroelectric generation facilities. The aim of the study was to use strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats (SWOT) analysis to identify Turkish renewable energy market strategy and perspective by focusing on four different concepts: policy, market, technology and the social dimension. Different information gathering strategies have been applied such as monitoring of all statements and press releases published in the newspapers by all Turkish renewable energy parties starting from the launch of the law, articles presented in the events between 2000 and 2008 and face-to-face interviews. Our results demonstrated the importance of technology development and knowledge creation for gaining competitiveness on the global arena and the need for a systematic approach for transforming the created know-how into economic and social benefits.     

The impact of different grid regulatory scenarios on the development of renewable energy on islands: A comparative study and improvement proposals

Electricity generation costs are typically higher on islands than in mainland regions, primarily due to the costs associated with conventional primary energy transportation. However, at the same time, islands are commonly granted with significant renewable energy potential in terms of wind, solar radiation and marine energy, among others, varying by case.This article is focused on the impact that the grid regulatory framework has had on several islands from both the technical and economical points of view, with respect to renewable energy development. A comparison among the studied islands is carried out. Additionally, the possible differences between each island (or archipelago) and the rest of the corresponding country on the mainland are analysed to determine to what extent the peculiarities of the islands have been taken into account in the regulations.Our objective is to analyse whether the renewable energy developments on certain islands have taken place because of certain favourable scenarios or by promoting specific actuations, which could be applicable on other islands to promote similar developments. As a result of the study, strategic key ideas are identified to increase the renewable energy percentage of the electricity generation and energy consumption mix on islands.