Greenways, blueways, skyways and other ways to a better London

“ Landscape planners are quick to criticise other professions for single-use planning, but we tend towards the same mistake when planning greenways and urban greenspace.” This proposition is illustrated by the great series of open space plans which was prepared for London between 1929 and 1976. It is then discussed from a theoretical standpoint with reference to Christopher Alexander, the ‘pattern analysis’ approach to landscape planning, and the author's 1991 report to the London Planning Advisory Committee, Towards a Green Strategy for London. The paper concludes that ‘greenway’ is an excellent marketing term, but that product diversification and product differentiation must take place. We need special varieties of greenway for special purposes. Brief Alexander-type patterns are outlined for seven varieties: parkway, blueway, paveway, glazeway, skyway, ecoway and cycleway.     

The role of agroforestry networks in landscape socioeconomic processes: the potential and limits of the contingent valuation method

Agroforestry networks can be a means to achieve landscape amelioration. Some authorities of the Lagoon of Venice drainage basin (Italy) are planning, amongst other actions to control pollution in the Lagoon, to reintroduce agroforestry by means of a GIS-supported design procedure. The goals of this paper were to assess (i) the contingent valuation (CV) (willingness to pay and willingness to accept) of agroforestry networks and its relationship with socioeconomic and agroforestry role variables, (ii) the coherence between agro-economic policies and farmers expectations, (iii) the relationship between the value of agroforestry as a “shared good” and water quality (non-point source pollution). Respondents associate a positive value/preference to the agroforestry network implementation, although this value is strongly affected firstly by their identity with the landscape and secondly by their income. The motivations of farmers’ evaluation are precise and the agroforestry network is considered not only as an “ethical object” but also as a concrete element of their own cultural and economic world. In this case the contingent value (in particular, in terms of acceptance) increases with the farmer’s economic capacity, and the farmer’s valuation is not linked only to the “good” but also to the “service” offered for implementing it. The expectations of farmers regarding an agroforestry plantation were lower than European Union incentives at the time of survey, and a lack of results in this field is probably linked to poor information and to bureaucratic difficulties. Even if there is general knowledge on water quality, there is little awareness on the non-point source pollution control effect of agroforestry buffer plantations, either in the common people or in those who are environmentally trained (e.g. planning university students). In every case the agroforestry “shared good” evaluation is high enough to permit efficient and supported intervention policies. These results confirm that landscape choices strongly involve issues of identity, perceived rights and evaluation capacity that cannot be simply resolved in terms of preference cost benefit analyses, but a clever use of the CV allows an identification of these same limitations and a partial estimation of them.     

Woodland as a setting for housing-appreciation and fear and the contribution to residential satisfaction and place identity in Warrington New Town, UK

This study evaluates “woodland in the ecological style” as a setting for contemporary housing by means of a case study of Birchwood, Warrington New Town, UK, using a postal questionnaire and semi-structured interviews to reveal residents’ perceptions of the aesthetic and safety aspects of the woodland, together with its underlying meanings. Most Birchwood residents liked the visual appearance of their street, though they had both positive and negative feelings towards its “trees and greenery”. Woodland in the local area figured prominently amongst the residents’ favourite places though some feared that they would be the victims of physical or sexual assault, or of robbery or intimidation from groups of young people in the woodland, and women felt particularly vulnerable. Whilst the woodland was significant for many residents it was not strongly identified with Birchwood as a place: the quality of the community as symbolised by the behaviour of local individuals, community groups and institutions was regarded as a more potent measure of local identity. Colourful and well-tended landscape interventions had the ability to act as signs of a caring community. The contribution of these findings to theoretical frameworks of residential satisfaction, restorative experiences and place identity is discussed: it is suggested, inter alia, that whilst signs of individual and collective care in the landscape contribute to communal place identity, individual experiences of wilder urban green spaces, including those of a restorative nature, are formative of individual place attachment. The implications for planning, design and management with ecological woodland are explored: urban dwellers should be able to choose their preferred way of interacting with the woodland, residential settings should accommodate a wide variety of user needs, and the vegetation on and around the streetscape should be proactively managed in consultation with the community.     

Remaining tree species from the indigenous vegetation of Ankara, Turkey

The city of Ankara is located in the geographic centre of Anatolia, Turkey. In the state of nature, Anatolia was covered with forests. Due to the destructive effects of civilisations passing through Anatolia over the centuries, the forest vegetation was gradually transformed to a steppe formation. After it became the capital city, a rapid planned urbanisation process was initiated in Ankara. In the first development plan, efforts were concentrated on the south axis of the city, which harbored the greatest concentration of indigenous plant cover in the valleys.In 1974, the embassy gardens and parks on the north–south axis were declared a “Natural Conservation Area”. Despite the conservation act, change and denuding of indigenous vegetation continued all along the axis due to highly increasing development. However, these conservation areas still include tree species from the indigenous vegetation. In this study, the presidency gardens, the embassy gardens and parks in Ankara that were declared a “conservation area” were evaluated in terms of the remaining tree species from the indigenous plant cover. The study aims to indicate the level of conservation of natural habitat in Ankara and to determine whether the concept of “Natural Conservation Areas” includes the protection of biodiversity or not. Moreover, the research results aim to reveal still existing tree species of indigenous vegetation, which will enlighten us regarding future landscape planning in Central Anatolia. Trees were examined by age, height and exposition. The results show that remaining indigenous tree species of the study area grow along the former ncesu River and that the terrain on which the trees stand is mostly exposed to the southwest and southeast. The indigenous tree species which do not exist in the study area are scattered in valleys along the river trails or on the hills of Ankara’s rural lands.     

The Riverside and Berwyn experience: Contrasts in landscape structure, perceptions of the urban landscape, and their effects on people

Humans not only structure the landscape through their activities, but their perceptions of nature are affected by the spatial and temporal arrangements (structure) in the landscape. Our understanding of these interactions, however, is limited. We explored the relationship between landscape structure and peoples’ perceptions of nature in the Chicago, IL, USA, suburbs of Riverside and Berwyn because they offer contrasting paradigms of an urban landscape. Designed in the 1800s by Frederick Law Olmsted, Riverside has several unique design elements (curvilinear streets, ample setbacks, parkways of variable width with mowed grass and naturalistic groupings of trees) that define the structure and composition of this landscape. The urban forest was the keystone of Olmsted's desire to create a harmonious community characterized by “refined sylvan beauty”. In contrast, the adjacent community of Berwyn has right-angled streets with small lots and narrow setbacks for houses. Differences in landscape structure between the two communities produced differences in the diversity, size, and composition of woody vegetation. As measured by patch-size distribution, Riverside had greater diversity in landscape structure than Berwyn, and in turn, Riverside had greater diversity in the composition and size of the woody vegetation compared to Berwyn. Riverside tended toward a “natural” appearance with vegetation, while yards in Berwyn tended to be trimmed and edged. Significant differences between the mean ratings of Riverside and Berwyn respondents were found for six of seven community attribute categories. Riverside participants reported receiving greater benefit from the visual and nature-related features of the urban forest than did Berwyn respondents. Berwyn residents ranked social atmosphere for the community and locomotion (wayfinding) highest among the seven community attribute categories. Despite differences between the two communities, residents valued the green residential environment provided by vegetation. However, the more diverse urban landscape as measured by built structures, woody vegetation, and lot size and shape proved to be more satisfying to the residents of these two communities. The design concepts developed and implemented by Olmsted more than century ago in Riverside are still relevant to city planners striving to develop living environments that are satisfying to urban and suburban residents.     

Empowering nature conservation in Japanese rural areas: a planning strategy integrating visual and biological landscape perspectives

There has been much discussion about the importance of nature conservation, but a concrete strategy has been lacking. Most conservation measures are reactive to development projects that threaten the sites’ conservation values. There is little synergy between nature conservation and other competing land-use policies. Furthermore, conservation messages are not communicated well because there are few opportunities for those involved in research, policy formation and policy implementation to interact. We illustrate the methodological framework that can be used to address these issues in rural nature conservation by presenting our research conducted in the Arai-Keinan district of Niigata, Japan. The proposed methodological framework consists of integrating visual and biological landscape approaches to understand the area’s natural environment and using participatory research to narrow the communication gaps among those involved. We stress the importance of expressing the research results and recommendations on a map as a strategy for effective nature conservation. The graphical presentation of a map not only allows for clearer delivery of messages from researchers to government officials and residents, but also facilitates coordination among competing land-use policies. The map is the central ammunition in reversing the reactive nature of conservation policies to that of a “preemptive” nature. Future research directions to gain stronger political support are also discussed.     

Digital landscape modeling and visualization: a research agenda

Digital landscape models, whether made for purposes of ‘visual inference’, or for simulating and understanding behavior or other invisible aspects of the landscape, require abstractions and simplifications. Yet for many visual purposes, ‘realistic’ depictions are desirable. The conflicts between these two demands are substantial for landscape modelers. For the basic landscape elements — terrain, vegetation, and water — some standard techniques for convincing static visual representation have been developed, but many complicating questions and obstacles remain. In addition, landscapes are essentially dynamic, and digital techniques for representation of these dynamics are still in their infancy. Surveying these techniques, complications, and possibilities leads to some generalized comments about the promises and problems of landscape modeling, and to a handful of proposed research topics to help pursue the landscape modeling agenda.     

Aquatic contamination and ecological risk. An attempt to a conceptual framework

The aim of this paper has been to introduce a conceptual model concerning the causal relationships determining the “road between dose and response” of toxic substances in aquatic environments. The paper is focused on metals and utilizes mercury as a type element. The approach puts special emphasis on the environmental factors regulating the potential effects of contaminants and stresses the importance of sedimentology in ecotoxicology. The approach discusses concepts like ecological effect, dose and sensitivity. A potential ecological risk index to be used in practical environmental control programs must also be based upon tested and comparatively inexpensive standard methods. Such an index should account for “biological contact area”, “biological contact time” and “additive effects”. A fundamental concept in this approach is the residual term, which describes the fact that it is impossible in ecological contexts to reach a complete understanding.     

How the Dutch city of Tilburg gets to the roots of the agricultural ‘kampen’ landscape

The Southern sandy areas in The Netherlands, characterised by small fields, intensive agriculture and a high population density, are turning into a vast urban conglomeration. The agricultural ‘kampen’ landscape has left its traces on the urban fabric with its scattered buildings and green wedges. It took centuries to transform 10 small villages into the town of Tilburg. Development of the qualities of the sandy areas calls for a unifying concept. The central issue is the transformation of landscape elements into the new urban context. The city of Tilburg decides to take the Greenstructure plan as the overall vision for the integration of town and countryside. The plan offers a medium-range strategy on the development of city districts, outdoor spaces and nature areas. ‘Greenstructures’ have to contribute to the segmentation of the conurbation by transforming landscape elements into inner landscape. Pilot projects demonstrate how urbanisation can fit the cultural landscape. These projects breathe new life into the (post) industrial landscape.     

The application of ‘least-cost’ modelling as a functional landscape model

The growing awareness of the adverse effects of habitat fragmentation on natural systems has resulted in a rapidly increasing number of actions to reduce current fragmentation of natural systems as well as a growing demand for tools to predict and evaluate the effect of changes in the landscape on connectivity in the natural world. Recent studies used ‘least-cost’ modelling (available as a toolbox in GIS-systems) to calculate ‘effective distance’, a measure for distance modified with the cost to move between habitat patches based on detailed geographical information on the landscape as well as behavioural aspects of the organisms studied. We applied the method to a virtual landscape and a small scaled agricultural system subject to different scenarios in a land re-allotment project. We discuss the importance of technical aspects and ecological assumption underlying this modelling method. The model is shown to be a flexible tool to model functional connectivity in the study of the relation between landscape and mobility of organisms as well as in scenario building and evaluation in wild life protection projects and applied land management projects. Since ‘effective distance’ has the same units as Euclidean distance (m), this effective distance may be a straightforward way to include landscape and behavioural aspects in other models which include distance as a measure for isolation. We show the importance of the ‘ecological’ quality of the input maps and the choice of relevant landscape features and resistance values.     

Particulate forms of radium and barium in uranium mine waste waters and receiving river waters

A method of selective dissolution was used for analysis of particulate forms of radium and barium in a system consisting of uranium mine waste waters purified by coprecipitation with barium sulphate and of adjacent river waters. Four particulate forms of both the elements were distinguished: “loosely bound”, “acid soluble”, Ba(Ra)SO₄ and “in crystalline detritus”. It was found that the distribution of radium and barium between dissolved and particulate forms in waste waters depended on the time interval elapsing between the sampling and membrane filtration of the waters. No such dependence occurred in river water. The main particulate form of radium and barium in the system was Ba(Ra)SO₄. River water upstream of the mine water discharge contained radium mainly in “acid soluble” form or “in crystalline detritus” and barium as BaSO₄ or “crystalline detritus”. In unpurified mine effluents, a large part of radium and barium was present as “crystalline detritus”. Abundance of the “loosely bound” form was very low in all the samples analyzed. The bond of radium in bottom sediments was approximately the same as that in the solids suspended in waste waters. Suitability and accuracy of the selective dissolution method for analysis of surface and waste waters has been demonstrated by the analysis of the results and by radiotracer experiments.     

Preferences for and attitudes towards street flowers and trees in Sapporo, Japan

The benefits of street vegetation, in particular the importance of trees, for urban dwellers have been given wide attention. There is, however, a lack of research on flowers as an element of street vegetation. This paper explores preferences for various street-planting models, particularly those with different compositions of flowers, with or without trees. Eighty-one residents of Sapporo evaluated 59 photomontage simulations and answered a questionnaire concerning their attitudes to street flowers. Results revealed trees to be the factor with the greatest influence on preference. Among possible elements for the space beneath trees from a choice including soil, grass, hedge and flowers, flowers were the most favoured. In particular, low and ordered compositions of brightly coloured flowers were the most preferred. Tall flowers were not found to be either attractive or appropriate for streetscapes in this case study. A factor analysis of the variables related to attitudes towards street flowers revealed the following five factors: “psychological benefits and aesthetic value”, “natural–environmental”, “practical concerns”, “effort to maintain” and “non-aesthetic”. The highest rated items were all related to the aesthetic and psychological benefits of street flowers. Flowers were the most preferred element beneath street trees and were seen as not only contributing to the aesthetic quality of a street but as also having a positive influence on psychological well-being.     

Neighborhood socioeconomic status is a useful predictor of perennial landscape vegetation in residential neighborhoods and embedded small parks of Phoenix, AZ

Though landscape vegetation in cities is human-mediated and often more diverse than that in surrounding environments, little work has been done to quantify ways that humans shape its composition. Our study identified important sources of variation in perennial vegetation composition within residential neighborhoods of Phoenix, AZ, USA. We hypothesized that neighborhood socioeconomic status (SES) should offer some capacity for predicting landscape vegetation richness and abundance in both residential neighborhoods and embedded small city parks. As predicted, neighborhood vegetation richness increased across a gradient of low to high SES (R²=0.89) with the most variation explained by median family income (R²=0.86). In contrast, neighborhood vegetation abundance decreased across a gradient of increased time since disturbance (R²=0.62) with the most variation explained by median year of neighborhood development (R²=0.56). Median year of neighborhood development was also the dominant factor (R²=0.47) in explaining decreased park vegetation abundance across a gradient of increased time since disturbance. We were least able to predict park vegetation richness and could account for only 29% of variation using a SES gradient model with percent of population having a graduate education as the most dominant factor. In residential neighborhoods, we identified more than 3 times the number of landscape vegetation taxa than an earlier report and also found a higher percentage of native vegetation in parks than in surrounding neighborhoods. We discuss these different compositional patterns of perennial vegetation in neighborhoods and embedded parks in terms of their relationship to socioeconomic and disturbance gradients, and a conceptual framework of “top-down” and “bottom-up” human management influences. Our study intimates that residential vegetation composition in rapidly expanding, arid cities like Phoenix is largely driven by “luxury” and legacy effects and should be most rich in neighborhoods with the highest socioeconomic standing and most abundant in newest neighborhoods.     

The “Landscape must become the law”—or should it?

The idea that society ought to be governed by the “law of landscape” must be seen in the context of the process by which the idea of landscape merged with that of nature in the course of the Renaissance and Enlightenment. In order to comprehend how these ideas morphed into the idea that “nature must become the law” as propounded by IFLA this history is traced. Through the linkages of “natural” social ideals with what was seen to be a “natural” style of landscape gardening, reforms sought to promote what often was seen to be a more just and economically, socially and physically sustainable form of society. This was an inherently conservative approach. It is shown how the ideas of landscape that developed from the Enlightenment to the period of land embellishment took a diabolical turn during the era of National Socialism in Germany. The idea of rooted-in-the-soil native plants as the ideal constituent of a German “landscape” continued among landscape architects and landscape planners after the liberation from National Socialism. Though somewhat diluted in the course of the second half of the twentieth century it re-emerged in a kind of renaissance in late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries under the terms “ecological planning” and the “nature garden”. Another source of these ideas lies particularly with the thinking of “anthroposophists”. The passage of a current legal landscape document, The European Landscape Convention, the heritage of the idea that “landscape must become the law” has gained new pertinence.     

Interrupted interface on the cybernetics of digital design process

From the viewpoint of Batesonian cybernetics, ‘conscious purpose’ and ‘artistic process’ are distinct ends of a spectrum of the functioning of ‘self’. The conceptual stage of the design process is essentially an artistic activity unencumbered with accuracy, dimensionality, scale, program or even tectonics, albeit all of these maybe tacitly present at the ‘back of a designer's mind’. Artistic activities involve broad mental processes that are beneath the stratum of consciousness. By definition, consciousness is selective awareness; it is linear in execution and limited in its capability to synthesize complex parameters. One of the central questions of this paper is “if artistic process requires one to abandon, or relinquish conscious purpose at the time of the generation of the work of art, and if the early stages of artistic process is a result of a vast number of ‘unconscious’ forces and impulses, then how can the computer, which demands (and thus propagates) geometric precision, focused operation and rational execution, be part of that process?” This paper will explore how, cybernetically, the computer can be ‘coupled’ with ‘self’ (via a visual interface) and the artistic process. Three specially devised conceptual design exercises—namely BlurrDesign, BlinDesign and BlitzDesign—and three corresponding “interruptive” computer interface modifications were deployed in an introduction to digital media course. The results of this study are now under consideration for their effectiveness in promoting conceptual design using the computer, and how the ‘self’ might form a cybernetic whole with the machine. The findings could have implications in design pedagogy, informatics and interface design.     

A continuum of organizations formed to carry out projects: Temporary and stationary organization forms

Projects are carried out by temporary organizations. These organizations can function independently or in cooperation with stationary organizations. To enable efficient project and program management, these differences in organization structure have to be considered. This paper therefore contrasts organizations formed to carry out activities at project sites based on forms of employment, work processes and resource networks used. Findings indicate that temporary organizations that are dominated by stationary “parent” organizations often rely on its abilities to secure access to crucial resources and to identify suitable work processes. “Pure” or virtually “pure” temporary organizations instead rely on their employees’ skills and contacts to develop suitable routines and gain access to resources.     

Israel: metropolitan integration or ‘fractured regions’? An alternative perspective

This paper proposes an alternative account of the high degree of power centrality in Israel, by arguing that the territorial ‘fracturing’ of Israel's main social and ethnic groups has prevented the emergence of effective pressure for regional devolution. Israel's character as a settler and settling state, and its central project of Judaising contested territories, enabled the Israeli ‘ethnocracy’ and its (mainly Ashkenazi) elites to create a political geography of ‘fractured ethnic and social regions’. This was achieved by dispersing minorities and legitimising segregation and inequality, all in the name of the ‘national interest’.The Israeli political landscape is therefore organised as ‘fractured regions’, each representing a distinct and interconnected, yet geographically dispersed, set of localities. The logic of dispersal and segregation, in turn, has also influenced patterns of development and residential separation within Israel's main urban areas. Thus ethnic and social fragmentation and conflict, and not a putative process of national or metropolitan integration, can explain much of Israel's highly centralised power structure.     

Different alliance relationships for project design and execution

The IMEC research programme (International Programme on the Management of Construction projects) performed an extensive benchmarking study of some 60 large engineering projects around the world during the period from 1995 to 1999. The purpose of the study was to identify best practice within different areas of management of such projects. While much of the focus of the study was on the front-end phase of the projects, some aspects of project design and execution were also addressed. This paper explores the findings of the IMEC study in this respect, with an emphasis on different models for alliance relationships in the design and execution phases. A model consisting of four different configurations of the dynamics of project development and execution has been identified. Two of these are based on a traditional arms’ length relationship in the design and execution phases. These traditional relationships have been explored in numerous existing publications and are, therefore, not dealt with specifically in this paper. The two configurations displaying a relational approach in the design and execution phases, termed “partners in design and execution” and “relational development and execution”, are described in detail. Perhaps the most important finding from the study is that there is no one “best practice” or “best configuration” for managing projects—the best-suited approach is highly dependent on the project in question and its characteristics.     

Sustaining creativity in the creative archetype: The case of Austin, Texas

Recently, the popular literature on creative industries and the urban creative landscape has been largely dominated by the work of one scholar, Richard Florida. The popularity of Richard Florida’s work has led to a zealous implementation of his creative class thesis by many city officials, policymakers, and urban planners. Recent studies have investigated the impact of creative city implementation in previously working class and industrial cities, but given Florida’s popularity and influence, it is also necessary to evaluate the sustainability of cities touted as creative success stories by Florida and others. This article examines the case of Austin, Texas, seeking to evaluate Florida’s model city in light of recent empirical research. This research suggests that while Austin has witnessed impressive economic prosperity, the “externalities” or unforeseen challenges associated with creative development are equally evident. Further, this research suggests that previously overlooked socio-cultural challenges (e.g. loss of urban cultural character, sense of detachment, over-commercialization) in Austin threaten to potentially undermine the sustainability of this mode of development.     

A relict of vegetational landscape related to seasonal migratory grazing in the south of Italy: the ‘Bosco dell'Incoronata’ (Foggia) southern Italy

In the past transhumance of sheep was an important phenomenon which took place all over the territories of central and southern Italy. The flocks, which in summer were pastured in the mountains of the central Apennines, in winter were moved across an intricate network of tracks (called ‘Tratturi’ in Italian) to the lowlands of the Adriatic cost and the plains of Puglia. As a result of a crisis this type of sheep-rearing is disappearing as well as the characteristics of the landscape which resulted from these journeys. We examine what remains of the characteristics of the landscape and vegetation of the ‘Bosco dell'Incoronata’ one of the last winter pastures of Puglia.