Microstructure and Mechanical Behavior of Powder Metallurgy Mg98.5Gd1Zn0.5 Alloy

The Mg_98.5Gd₁Zn_0.5 alloy produced by a powder metallurgy route was studied and compared with the same alloy produced by extrusion of ingots. Atomized powders were cold compacted and extruded at 623 K and 673 K (350 °C and 400 °C). The microstructure of extruded materials was characterized by α-Mg grains, and Mg₃Gd and 14H-LPSO particles located at grain boundaries. Grain size decreased from 6.8 μm in the extruded ingot, down to 1.6 μm for powders extruded at 623 K (350 °C). Grain refinement resulted in an increase in mechanical properties at room and high temperatures. Moreover, at high temperatures the PM alloy showed superplasticity at high strain rates, with elongations to failure up to 700 pct.     

Development of Very High Strength and Ductile Dilute Magnesium Alloys by Dispersion of Quasicrystal Phase

Very high strengths, with tensile yield strength from 377 to 405 MPa, combined with elongation to failure of over 12 pct, have been achieved in Mg-Zn-Y dilute alloys by direct extrusion. Alloys Mg-6xZn-xY, where x = 0.2, 0.35, and 0.5 (at. pct) were chill cast in a steel mold and direct extruded at a temperature in the range 508 K to 528 K (235 °C to 255 °C), which produced an average grain size of about 1 μm. Quasicrystalline i-phase particles were dispersed in the matrix with size ranging from 50 nm to 1 μm. In addition, high density of nano-precipitates of average size 15 nm was dispersed in matrix. Thus we have developed magnesium alloys of very high strength combined with ductility by a simple process using extrusion with very little addition of yttrium.     

Negative Strain-Rate Sensitivity of Mg Alloys Containing 18R and 14H Long-Period Stacking-Ordered Phases at Intermediate Temperatures

The strain-rate sensitivity of a Mg-10Dy-1Zn (wt pct) alloy containing different long-period stacking-ordered (LPSO) phases has been investigated in the strain rate range of 10^?3 to 1 s^?1 from room temperature to 673 K (400 °C). Both alloys containing 18R-LPSO and 14H-LPSO phases show negative strain-rate sensitivity (–0.02  to –0.01) at intermediate temperatures [423 K to 523 K (150 °C to 250 °C)]. The serration behavior of the Mg-10Dy-1Zn alloy containing 18R-LPSO phase is related to dynamic strain aging. However, the appearance of serrated flow in the Mg-10Dy-1Zn alloy containing 14H-LPSO phase is mostly rooted in the formation of microcracks in \( \left\{ {10\overline{1} 2} \right\} \) planes.     

Evolution of Intermetallics,Dispersoids, and Elevated Temperature Properties at Various Fe Contents in Al-Mn-Mg 3004 Alloys

Nowadays, great interests are rising on aluminum alloys for the applications at elevated temperature, driven by the automotive and aerospace industries requiring high strength, light weight, and low-cost engineering materials. As one of the most promising candidates, Al-Mn-Mg 3004 alloys have been found to possess considerably high mechanical properties and creep resistance at elevated temperature resulted from the precipitation of a large number of thermally stable dispersoids during heat treatment. In present work, the effect of Fe contents on the evolution of microstructure as well as high-temperature properties of 3004 alloys has been investigated. Results show that the dominant intermetallic changes from α-Al(MnFe)Si at 0.1 wt pct Fe to Al₆(MnFe) at both 0.3 and 0.6 wt pct Fe. In the Fe range of 0.1–0.6 wt pct studied, a significant improvement on mechanical properties at elevated temperature has been observed due to the precipitation of dispersoids, and the best combination of yield strength and creep resistance at 573 K (300 °C) is obtained in the 0.3 wt pct Fe alloy with the finest size and highest volume fraction of dispersoids. The superior properties obtained at 573 K (300 °C) make 3004 alloys more promising for high-temperature applications. The relationship between the Fe content and the dispersoid precipitation as well as the materials properties has been discussed.     

Effect of Extrusion Temperature on the Plastic Deformation of an Mg-Y-Zn Alloy Containing LPSO Phase Using <Emphasis Type="Italic">In Situ</Emphasis> Neutron Diffraction

The evolution of the internal strains during in situ tension and compression tests has been measured in an MgY₂Zn₁ alloy containing long-period stacking ordered (LPSO) phase using neutron diffraction. The alloy was extruded at two different temperatures to study the influence of the microstructure and texture of the magnesium and the LPSO phases on the deformation mechanisms. The alloy extruded at 623 K (350 °C) exhibits a strong fiber texture with the basal plane parallel to the extrusion direction due to the presence of areas of coarse non-recrystallised grains. However, at 723 K (450 °C), the magnesium phase is fully recrystallised with grains randomly oriented. On the other hand, at the two extrusion temperatures, the LPSO phase orients their basal plane parallel to the extrusion direction. Yield stress is always slightly higher in compression than in tension. Independently on the stress sign and the extrusion temperature, the beginning of plasticity is controlled by the activation of the basal slip system in the dynamic recrystallized grains. Therefore, the elongated fiber-shaped LPSO phase which behaves as the reinforcement in a metal matrix composite is responsible for this tension–compression asymmetry.     

Heterogeneous Creep Deformations and Correlation to Microstructures in Fe-30Cr-3Al Alloys Strengthened by an Fe<Subscript>2</Subscript>Nb Laves Phase

A new Fe-Cr-Al (FCA) alloy system has been developed with good oxidation resistance and creep strength at high temperature. The alloy system is a candidate for use in future fossil-fueled power plants. The creep strength of these alloys at 973 K (700 °C) was found to be comparable with traditional 9 pct Cr ferritic–martensitic steels. A few FCA alloys with general composition of Fe-30Cr-3Al-.2Si-xNb (x = 0, 1, or 2) with a ferrite matrix and Fe₂Nb-type Laves precipitates were prepared. The detailed microstructural characterization of samples, before and after creep rupture testing, indicated precipitation of the Laves phase within the matrix, Laves phase at the grain boundaries, and a 0.5 to 1.5 μm wide precipitate-free zone (PFZ) parallel to all the grain boundaries. In these alloys, the areal fraction of grain boundary Laves phase and the width of the PFZ controlled the cavitation nucleation and eventual grain boundary ductile failure. A phenomenological model was used to compare the creep strain rates controlled by the effects of the particles on the dislocations within the grain and at grain boundaries. (The research sponsored by US-DOE, Office of Fossil Energy, the Crosscutting Research Program).     

Influence of Extrusion on the Microstructure and Mechanical Behavior of Mg-9Li-3Al-xSr Alloys

Mg-9Li-3Al-xSr (LA93-xSr, x = 0, 1.5, 2.5, and 3.5 wt pct) alloys were cast and extruded at 533 K (260 °C) with an extrusion ratio of 28. The microstructure and mechanical response are reported and discussed paying particular attention to the influence of extrusion and Sr content on phase composition, strength, and ductility. The results of the current study show that LA93-xSr alloys contain both α-Mg (hcp) and β-Li (bcc) matrix phases. Moreover, the addition of Sr refines the grain size in the as-cast alloys and leads to the formation of the intermetallic compound (Al₄Sr). Our results show significant grain refinement during extrusion and almost no influence of Sr content on the grain size of the extruded alloys. The microstructure evolution during extrusion is governed by continuous dynamic recrystallization (CDRX) in the α-Mg phase, whereas discontinuous dynamic recrystallization (DDRX) occurs in the β-Li phase. The mechanical behavior of the extruded LA93-xSr alloy is discussed in terms of grain refinement and dislocation strengthening. The tensile strength of the extruded alloys first increases and then decreases, whereas the elongation decreases monotonically with increasing Sr; in contrast, hardness increases for all Sr compositions studied herein. Specifically, when Sr content is 2.5 wt pct, the extruded Mg-9Li-3Al-2.5Sr (LAJ932) alloy exhibits a favorable combination of strength and ductility with an ultimate tensile strength of 235 MPa, yield strength of 221 MPa, and an elongation of 19.4 pct.     

Evaluating the Superplastic Flow of a Magnesium AZ31 Alloy Processed by Equal-Channel Angular Pressing

Experiments show that the magnesium AZ31 (Mg-3 pct Al-1 pct Zn) alloy exhibits excellent superplastic properties at 623 K (350 °C) after processing by equal-channel angular pressing using a die with a channel angle of 135 deg and a range of decreasing processing temperatures from 473 K to 413 K (200 °C to 140 °C). A maximum elongation to failure of ~1200 pct was achieved in this alloy at a tensile strain rate of 1.0 × 10^?4 s^?1. Microstructural inspection showed evidence for cavity formation and grain growth during tensile testing with the grain growth leading to significant strain hardening. An examination of the experimental data shows that grain boundary sliding is dominant during superplastic flow. Furthermore, a comprehensive review of the present results and extensive published data for the AZ31 alloy shows the exponent of the inverse grain size is given by p ≈ 2 which is consistent with grain boundary sliding as the rate-controlling flow mechanism.     

Effects of Alloying Elements on Creep Properties of Mg-Gd-Zr Alloys

The minimum creep rate and microstructures of aged samples of Mg-Gd-Zr alloys, with and without alloying additions of Zn and/or Y, have been investigated in the present work. The creep tests were performed at 523 K (250 °C) and under 80 to 120 MPa, and the microstructures before and after creep tests were characterized using scanning electron microscopy, transmission electron microscopy, and the high-angle annular dark-field imaging technique. It is found that dislocation creep predominates in the steady-state creep stage for all alloys. The Mg-2.5Gd-0.1Zr (at. pct) alloy, strengthened by the β′ precipitates, has minimum creep rates in the range 1.0 × 10^?8 to 3.8 × 10^?8 s^?1 under 80 to 120 MPa. The addition of 1.0 at. pct Zn to the Mg-2.5Gd-0.1Zr alloy reduces the 0.2 pct proof strength and increases the minimum creep rate, resulting from the formation of γ′ basal plates at the expense of β′ precipitates. The replacement of 1.0 at. pct Gd by Y in the Mg-2.5Gd-1.0Zn-0.1Zr alloy leads to a substantial reduction in the minimum creep rate, even though it does not cause much change to the 0.2 pct proof strength. The reduced minimum creep rate is attributed to a much lower diffusivity of Y atoms than Gd in the solid magnesium matrix. An increase in the Gd content from Mg-1.5Gd-1.0Y-1.0Zn-0.1Zr to Mg-2.5Gd-1.0Y-1.0Zn-0.1Zr leads to a denser distribution of precipitates, a higher 0.2 pct proof strength, and a further reduction in the minimum creep rate.     

Effect of Zn Content on Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of MgZnYLaMM Alloys

The effect of Zn content on microstructure, existing phases, and mechanical properties of rapidly solidified MgZn _x Y₁LaMM₁Mn_0.5 alloys (X?=?2, 3, 4 at.?pct) has been investigated. To assess the microstructural characterization of nanocrystalline alloys, the study also includes microstructural characterization of the master alloys. The microstructure of the alloys in as-rapidly solidified condition consisted of supersaturated magnesium dendrites and fine (Mg,Zn)₁₇La₂ and W phase (Mg₃Y₂Zn₃) segregated at grain and cell boundaries. During continuous heating, the metastable solid solution in Mg dendrites breaks down, increasing the volume fraction of second-phase particles. After annealing for 1?hour at 673?K (400?°C), very small spherical Mn-rich precipitates appeared in the three alloys and a long-period stacking ordered (LPS) phase of rectangular morphology precipitated inside the Mg grains in the alloy with the lowest Zn content. The nanocrystalline nature of the ribbons accounts for the high hardness and yield stress values in as-rapidly solidified state, although both decrease with increasing zinc content. This fact has been related to a coarser microstructure and higher volume fraction of the W phase as the Zn content increases. The highest yield stress value of 350?MPa is attained by the MgZn₂Y₁LaMM₁ ribbon in as-rapidly solidified condition. A decrease in yield stress values (about 50?MPa) is observed for all ribbons when they are heated at 673?K (400?°C) for 1?hour.     

Effect of Stress Level on the High Temperature Deformation and Fracture Mechanisms of Ti-45Al-2Nb-2Mn-0.8 vol. pct TiB2: An In Situ Experimental Study

The effect of the applied stress on the deformation and crack nucleation and propagation mechanisms of a γ-TiAl intermetallic alloy (Ti-45Al-2Nb-2Mn (at. pct)-0.8 vol. pct TiB₂) was examined by means of in situ tensile (constant strain rate) and tensile-creep (constant load) experiments performed at 973 K (700 °C) using a scanning electron microscope. Colony boundary cracking developed during the secondary stage in creep tests at 300 and 400 MPa and during the tertiary stage of the creep tests performed at higher stresses. Colony boundary cracking was also observed in the constant strain rate tensile test. Interlamellar ledges were only found during the tensile-creep tests at high stresses (σ > 400 MPa) and during the constant strain rate tensile test. Quantitative measurements of the nature of the crack propagation path along secondary cracks and along the primary crack indicated that colony boundaries were preferential sites for crack propagation under all the conditions investigated. The frequency of interlamellar cracking increased with stress, but this fracture mechanism was always of secondary importance. Translamellar cracking was only observed along the primary crack.     

Microstructure of Precipitation Hardenable Powder Metallurgical Ni Alloys Containing 35 to 45 pct Cr and 3.5 to 6 pct Nb

Ni-based alloys with high Cr contents are not only known for their excellent high temperature and hot corrosion resistance, but are also known for poor mechanical properties and difficult workability. Powder metallurgical (PM) manufacturing of alloys may overcome several of the shortcomings encountered in materials manufacturing involving solidification. In the present work, six PM Ni-based alloys containing 35 to 45 wt pct Cr and 3.5 to 6 wt pct Nb were produced and compacted via hot isostatic pressing. Samples were heat treated for up to 1656 hours at either 923 K or 973 K (650 °C or 700 °C), and the microstructures and mechanical properties were quantified and compared to thermodynamic calculations. For the majority of the investigated alloys, the high Cr and Nb contents caused development of primary populations of globular α-Cr and δ (Ni₃Nb). Transmission electron microscopy of selected alloys confirmed the additional presence of metastable γ″ (Ni₃Nb). A co-dependent growth morphology was found, where the preferred growth direction of γ″, the {001} planes of γ-Ni, caused precipitates of both α-Cr and δ to appear in the form of mutually perpendicular oriented disks or plates. Solution heat treatment at 1373 K (1100 °C) followed by aging at 973 K (700 °C) produced a significant strength increase for all alloys, and an aged yield strength of 990 MPa combined with an elongation of 21 pct is documented for Ni 40 wt pct Cr 3.5 wt pct Nb.     

High-Temperature Creep and Oxidation Behavior of Mo-Si-B Alloys with High Ti Contents

Multiphase alloys in the Mo-Si-B system are potential high-temperature structural materials due to their good oxidation and creep resistance. Since they suffer from relatively high densities, the current study focuses on the influence of density-reducing Ti additions on creep and oxidation behavior at temperatures above 1273 K (1000 °C). Two alloys with compositions of Mo-12.5Si-8.5B-27.5Ti and Mo-9Si-8B-29Ti (in at. pct) were synthesized by arc melting and then homogenized by annealing in vacuum for 150 hours at 1873 K (1600 °C). Both alloys show similar creep behavior at stresses of 100 to 300 MPa and temperatures of 1473 K and 1573 K (1200 °C and 1300 °C), although they possess different intermetallic volume fractions. They exhibit superior creep resistance and lower density than a state-of-the-art Ni-base superalloy (single-crystalline CMSX-4) as well as other Mo-Si-B alloys. Solid solution strengthening due to Ti was confirmed by Vickers hardness measurements and is believed to be the reason for the significant increase in creep resistance compared to Mo-Si-B alloys without Ti, but with comparable microstructural length scales. The addition of Ti degrades oxidation resistance relative to a Mo-9Si-8B reference alloy due to the formation of a relatively porous duplex layer with titania matrix enabling easy inward diffusion of oxygen.     

Transition of dominant diffusion process during superplastic deformation in AZ61 magnesium alloys

The superplastic behavior of the AZ61 magnesium alloy sheet, processed by one-step hot extrusion and possessing medium grain sizes of ∼12 μm, has been investigated over the temperature range of 523 to 673 K. The highest superplastic elongation of 920 pct was obtained at 623 K and a deformation rate of 1×10⁻⁴ s⁻¹. In the lower and higher strain rate regimes, with apparent m values of ∼0.45 and ∼0.25, respectively, grain-boundary sliding (GBS) and dislocation creep appeared to dominate the deformation, consistent with the scanning electron microscopy (SEM) examination. The SEM examination also revealed that individual GBS started to operate from the very initial deformation stage in the strain rate range with m∼0.45, which was attributed to the relatively high fraction (88 pct) of high-angle boundaries. The analyses of the superplastic data over 523 to 673 K and 5×10⁻⁵ to 1×10⁻³ s⁻¹ revealed a true stress exponent of ∼2, and the activation energy was close to that for grain-boundary and lattice diffusion of magnesium at 523 to 573 K and 573 to 673 K, respectively. The transition temperature of activation energy is ∼573 K, which is attributed to the change in the dominant diffusion process from grain-boundary diffusion to lattice diffusion. It is demonstrated that the effective diffusion coefficient is a valid parameter to characterize the superplastic behavior and the dominant diffusion process.     

Mechanical Performance of Ferritic Martensitic Steels for High Dose Applications in Advanced Nuclear Reactors

Ferritic/martensitic (F/M) steels are considered for core applications and pressure vessels in Generation IV reactors as well as first walls and blankets for fusion reactors. There are significant scientific data on testing and industrial experience in making this class of alloys worldwide. This experience makes F/M steels an attractive candidate. In this article, tensile behavior, fracture toughness and impact property, and creep behavior of the F/M steels under neutron irradiations to high doses with a focus on high Cr content (8 to 12) are reviewed. Tensile properties are very sensitive to irradiation temperature. Increase in yield and tensile strength (hardening) is accompanied with a loss of ductility and starts at very low doses under irradiation. The degradation of mechanical properties is most pronounced at <0.3T _M (T _M is melting temperature) and up to 10 dpa (displacement per atom). Ferritic/martensitic steels exhibit a high fracture toughness after irradiation at all temperatures even below 673 K (400 °C), except when tested at room temperature after irradiations below 673 K (400 °C), which shows a significant reduction in fracture toughness. Creep studies showed that for the range of expected stresses in a reactor environment, the stress exponent is expected to be approximately one and the steady state creep rate in the absence of swelling is usually better than austenitic stainless steels both in terms of the creep rate and the temperature sensitivity of creep. In short, F/M steels show excellent promise for high dose applications in nuclear reactors.     

Experimental and Diffusion Simulation for the Homogenization of As-cast Mg-Al,Mg-Zn,and Mg-Al-Zn Alloys

Annealing of as-cast Mg-Al alloys (3, 6, and 9 wt pct Al) and Mg-Zn alloys (1.5, 4.0, and 5.5 wt pct Zn) was performed at 603 K and 673 K (330 °C and 400 °C) for 1, 2, 4, and 8 hours to systematically investigate the variation of second phase fraction and solute concentration profile in Mg matrix using SEM image analysis and EMPA-WDS, respectively. To calculate second phase fraction and solute concentration profile, a diffusion model considering the moving boundary was constructed, and the experimental results were successfully explained by the model. The expansion of model to ternary Mg-Al-Zn alloy is also described. This model can be used for the optimization of homogenization process of the Mg alloys.     

Microstructure and Magnetic Properties of Ni2(Mn,Fe)Ga Heusler Alloys Rapidly Solidified by Melt Spinning

The microstructure and magnetic properties of Ni₂MnGa base alloys with “Fe” substitution in place of “Mn” are studied. The processing technique used is melt spinning at wheel speeds of 20 m/s and 30 m/s followed by annealing at 1273 K (1000 °C) for 1 hour. Fe content is varied from 2 at. pct to 11 at. pct for alloys of Ni₅₀Mn_(25?x)Fe _x Ga₂₅ with Heusler stoichiometry. Austenite with B2 partial atomic ordering and premartensitic tweed structures were found at room temperature for all the alloys at different wheel speeds. After annealing at 1273 K (1000 °C) for 1 hour, austenite phase with L2₁ Heusler atomic ordering is stabilized in samples of all the processing conditions. Saturation magnetization, martensitic transformation temperature, and Curie temperature are measured. Martensite temperature and Curie temperature increase in proportion to iron content in the alloy. Saturation magnetization is sensitive to the phase content and compositional inhomogeneities.     

Phase Evolution in and Creep Properties of Nb-Rich Nb-Si-Cr Eutectics

In this work, the Nb-rich ternary eutectic in the Nb-Si-Cr system has been experimentally determined to be Nb-10.9Si-28.4Cr (in at. pct). The eutectic is composed of three main phases: Nb solid solution (Nb_ss), β-Cr₂Nb, and Nb₉(Si,Cr)₅. The ternary eutectic microstructure remains stable for several hundred hours at a temperature up to 1473 K (1200 °C). At 1573 K (1300 °C) and above, the silicide phase Nb₉(Si,Cr)₅ decomposes into α-Nb₅Si₃, Nb_ss, and β-Cr₂Nb. Under creep conditions at 1473 K (1200 °C), the alloy deforms by dislocation creep while the major creep resistance is provided by the silicide matrix. If the silicide phase is fragmented and, thus, its matrix character is destroyed by prior heat treatment [e.g., at 1773 K (1500 °C) for 100 hours], creep is mainly controlled by the Laves phase β-Cr₂Nb, resulting in increased minimum strain rates. Compared to state of the art Ni-based superalloys, the creep resistance of this three-phase eutectic alloy is significantly higher.     

Microstructural Changes by Annealing in Ultrafine-Grained Electrodeposited Pure Iron

In situ neutron diffraction during annealing was performed for ultrafine-grained as-deposited and cold-rolled pure iron. Changes in the integrated intensity and full-width at half-maximum in the diffraction profiles during annealing were measured. EBSD measurements were performed before and after annealing to obtain microstructural change. Abnormal grain growth was clearly found at 673 K (400 °C) upon annealing; this observation corresponds to the hydrogen desorption behavior of the as-deposited specimen. The texture changes from {111}〈hkl〉 to {211}〈hkl〉 between 673 K and 873 K (400 °C and 600 °C) upon continuous heating. Such a texture change is postulated to decrease the Lankford value from 7.6 to 2.2. The 40 pct cold-rolled specimen exhibited a complicated textural evolution upon annealing, which was caused by the intrusion of recrystallization at deformation bands.     

Precipitate Rafting in a Polycrystalline Superalloy During Compression Creep

Rafting is an industrially and scientifically important phenomenon for precipitate-strengthened alloys utilized at high temperatures. Although this phenomenon is observed in polycrystalline alloys as well, the literature lacks scientific work on rafting in polycrystals. Scientific work is usually conducted on single-crystal superalloys. Being one of the many polycrystalline nickel-base superalloys, IN738LC has a good high-temperature strength and hot corrosion resistance. Coherency strains between the FCC gamma matrix (γ)- and L1₂ gamma prime (γ′)-precipitate phase particles mainly provide the high-temperature strength in IN738LC. Conical IN738LC specimens have been aged under compression for various times [24, 192, 480, and 960 hours at 1223 K (950 °C) and 12, 24, 192, and 480 hours at 1323 K (1050 °C)] in order to observe the morphological evolution of the γ′ precipitate microstructure. Dislocations play a determining role in morphological changes. Fingerprints of matrix dislocations in the form of indentations on γ′ precipitates have been identified by scanning electron microscope. Precipitate morphology has become more complex through dissolution/merging as temperature, aging time, and stress have increased. The precipitate morphology has evolved toward rafting at appropriate strain, temperature, and time. Localized slip bands have marked the beginning of rafting. The rafts have been observed at around a 45 deg angle away from the load direction. For higher stress positions, there is a trend toward N-type rafting which is expected of a positive misfit alloy under compression. Rafts eventually have collapsed due to severe creep deformation.