3D Modeling of Transport Phenomena and the Injection of the Solution Droplets in the Solution Precursor Plasma Spraying

Solution precursor plasma spraying has been used to produce finely structured ceramic coatings with nano- and sub-micrometric features. This process involves the injection of a solution spray of ceramic salts into a DC plasma jet under atmospheric condition. During the process, the solvent vaporizes as the droplet travel downstream. Solid particles are finally formed due to the precipitation of the solute, and the particle are heated up and accelerated to the substrate to generate the coating. This article describes a 3D model to simulate the transport phenomena and the trajectory and heating of the solution spray in the process. The jet-spray two-way interactions are considered. A simplified model is employed to simulate the evolution process and the formation of the solid particle from the solution droplet in the plasma jet. The temperature and velocity fields of the jet are obtained and validated. The particle size, velocity, temperature, and position distribution on the substrate are predicted. This article is an invited paper selected from presentations at the 2007 International Thermal Spray Conference and has been expanded from the original presentation. It is simultaneously published in Global Coating Solutions, Proceedings of the 2007 International Thermal Spray Conference, Beijing, China, May 14-16, 2007, Basil R. Marple, Margaret M. Hyland, Yuk-Chiu Lau, Chang-Jiu Li, Rogerio S. Lima, and Ghislain Montavon, Ed., ASM International, Materials Park, OH, 2007.     

Heat and Mass Transfer Within an Evaporating Solution Droplet in a Plasma Jet

Solution precursors have been injected into the plasma gases to produce finely structured ceramic coatings with nano- and sub-micrometric features. The trajectory history and heat and mass transfer within individual solution droplets play a very important role in determining the coating microstructure. A mathematical model is developed to analyse the thermal behavior of individual precursor droplets travelling in the high temperature plasma jet. This model involves the motion and evaporation of the precursor droplet in a DC plasma jet and the heat and mass transfer within the evaporating droplet. The influence of Stefan flow, as well as the variable thermo-physical properties of the solution and the plasma gas, is considered. The internal circulation due to the relative velocity between the droplet and the plasma jet, which may be approximated by the Hill vortex, is considered as well. The trajectory, temporal droplet surface temperature, and radius variation are predicted. The temporal temperature and concentration distributions within the evaporating droplet are presented for different injection parameters.     

A Particle-Tracking-Velocimetry (PTV) Investigation of Liquid Injection in a DC Plasma Jet

The present article describes experimental results of liquid injection in a thermal plasma jet by particle-tracking velocimetry (PTV). This technique delivers an in-situ real-time analysis of the liquid breakup and measures the velocities and the trajectories of the particles. The observations were done within the 10 mm surrounding the injection location where the plasma brightness is considerable. First, a validation of the proposed investigation method was carried out in a slower plasma jet. Subsequently, PTV measurements within faster plasma jets, resulting in a set of trajectories, were compared with trajectories achieved through optical diagnostics based on a simple shadow-graph technique proposed by Damiani et al. [Injection d’un liquide au sein d’un jet plasma thermique: optimisation de la trajectoire des particules, Proceedings of Congrès Francophone de Techniques Laser, CFTL 2010, Vandoeuvre lès nancy, France, 2010 (in French)]. These trajectories indicated that a higher plasma flow rate was required to spray all droplet sizes in the axis of the flow, thereby enabling an optimal spraying (then coating) application for producing nanostructured thin layers. This study showed that the liquid injection parameters are of main importance to obtain optimal injection and plasma parameters to achieve the required coating properties.     

Modeling of Precipitate Formation in Solution Precursor Droplets in a Microwave Plasma

A comprehensive computational model based on finite difference method was developed to study the heat and mass transport within solution precursor droplets injected into a laminar microwave air plasma flow field. Plasma flow field was simulated as hot gas flowing in a quartz tube generated by volumetric heat addition in the microwave coupling region. The resulting air plasma had a maximum temperature of 6000 K. Droplets containing zirconium acetate precursor of different diameters and solute concentrations were injected into the axisymmetric laminar plasma flow along the centerline of the plasma. Variation of transport properties of the plasma surrounding spherical droplets and absorption of microwave radiation within these droplets were considered in the model. Model predictions suggest that solution droplets are not affected by the microwave radiation in the presence of high convective heat flux from microwave plasma. Smaller droplets and high solute concentrations result in formation of thicker precipitate shells around them based on the homogeneous precipitation hypothesis. Mass transport is found to be slower than heat transfer in the droplets. Microwave plasma allowing the possibility of injecting droplets axially into the high temperature plasma environment present the opportunity to produce more consistent precipitate states as compared to DC arc plasmas into which droplets are typically injected transversely in thermal spray applications.     

Liquid Precursor Plasma Spraying: Modeling the Interactions Between the Transient Plasma Jet and the Droplets

Plasma spraying using liquid feedstock makes it possible to produce thin coatings (<100 μm) with more refined microstructures than in conventional plasma spraying. However, the low density of the feedstock droplets makes them very sensitive to the instantaneous characteristics of the fluctuating plasma jet at the location where they are injected. In this study, the interactions between the fluctuating plasma jet and droplets are explored by using numerical simulations. The computations are based on a three-dimensional and time-dependent model of the plasma jet that couples the dynamic behaviour of the arc inside the torch and the plasma jet issuing from the plasma torch. The turbulence that develops in the jet flow issuing in air is modeled by a large Eddy simulation model that computes the largest structures of the flow which carry most of the energy and momentum. This article is an invited paper selected from presentations at the 2007 International Thermal Spray Conference and has been expanded from the original presentation. It is simultaneously published in Global Coating Solutions, Proceedings of the 2007 International Thermal Spray Conference, Beijing, China, May 14-16, 2007, Basil R. Marple, Margaret M. Hyland, Yuk-Chiu Lau, Chang-Jiu Li, Rogerio S. Lima, and Ghislain Montavon, Ed., ASM International, Materials Park, OH, 2007.     

Fast Modeling of Phase Changes in a Particle Injected Within a d.c Plasma Jet

When spraying ceramic particles with a low thermal conductivity such as zirconia using Ar-H₂ direct-current (d.c.) plasma jets where the heat transfer is important, heat transfer phenomena take place with the propagation of melting, evaporation and even afterwards solidification fronts. Most models neglect these heat transfer phenomena assuming the particle as a lumped media. This work is aimed at developing a model coupling the effect of heat propagation within the particle along its trajectory. It uses an adaptative grid in which the coordinates of the phase change fronts are fixed. It allows minimizing the calculation costs (approximately 10 s on PC under Windows XP against 1 h with an enthalpy model). Such calculations are illustrated in an Ar-H₂ (25 vol.%) for dense and porous agglomerated zirconia (low thermal conductivity) as well as iron particles with a much higher thermal conductivity and drastic evaporation. This article was originally published in Global Coating Solutions, Proceedings of the 2007 International Thermal Spray Conference, Beijing, China, May 14-16, 2007, Basil R. Marple, Margaret M. Hyland, Yuk-Chiu Lau, Chang-Jiu Li, Rogerio S. Lima, and Ghislain Montavon, Ed., ASM International, Materials Park, 2007.     

弧电压对等离子射流温度脉动的影响

电弧等离子体射流中的湍流是等离子体射流的典型物理现象之一。射流的脉动将直接影响射流温度的脉动,而以往的研究认为射流存在一个处于稳定状态的核心区域,本文采用电弧等离子体光谱诊断及数字高速摄影的方法对常压电弧等离子体射流进行了研究,采用了傅立叶变换的方法分析弧电压和射流光谱强度信号,发现电源的交流分量和阳极弧点运动对整个射流的脉动特性都有影响。射流并不存在一个处于稳定状态的核心区域,相反从谱线强度脉动与弧电压脉动的FFT分析图中可以看到,射流的脉动主要是由电弧电压的脉动造成的。     

等离子喷枪的注气方式对电弧不稳定性的影响

基于局域热力学平衡假设,建立三维非稳态的磁流体动力学模型,在给定气流量和工作电流的条件下,采用数值模拟方法研究不同注气方式对直流非转移弧等离子喷枪内Ar-H2等离子电弧的波动行为和等离子特性的影响。结果表明,与直流进气相比较,采用旋转方式进气时,喷枪内等离子体流的流线呈现出明显的螺旋状分布,电弧波动信号呈现出更高的平均电压和较高波动频率,电弧附着随时间变化呈现出圆周运动现象;喷枪内等离子体的最大温度出现在阴极尖端附近,采用旋转方式注气时等离子平均最大温度较低,而等离子体的速度沿中心轴方向呈现出先增加后减小的趋势。喷枪出口处等离子体的温度与速度同样显示出波动分布,两种进气方式得到的温度分布基本相似,采用旋转方式注气时等离子平均最大速度分布相对较高。     

Modelling the Plasma Jet in Multi-Arc Plasma Spraying

Particle in-flight characteristics in atmospheric plasma spraying process are determined by impulse and heat energy transferred between the plasma jet and injected powder particles. One of the important factors for the quality of the plasma-sprayed coatings is thus the distribution of plasma gas temperatures and velocities in plasma jet. Plasma jets generated by conventional single-arc plasma spraying systems and their interaction with powder particles were subject matter of intensive research. However, this does not apply to plasma jets generated by means of multi-arc plasma spraying systems yet. In this study, a numerical model has been developed which is designated to dealing with the flow characteristics of the plasma jet generated by means of a three-cathode spraying system. The upstream flow conditions, which were calculated using a priori conducted plasma generator simulations, have been coupled to the plasma jet simulations. The significances of the relevant numerical assumptions and aspects of the models are analyzed. The focus is placed on to the turbulence and diffusion/demixing modelling. A critical evaluation of the prediction power of the models is conducted by comparing the numerical results to the experimental results determined by means of emission spectroscopic computed tomography. It is evident that the numerical models exhibit a good accuracy for their intended use.     

气体介质对常压等离子体还原氧化铜的影响

目的研究不同等离子体还原介质和还原时间对氧化铜还原的影响。方法采用等离子焰流扫描试样,应用扫描电镜观察还原后试样的表面微观形貌,通过X射线衍射仪分析试样处理前后表面相成分的变化。结果采用N2+热氨为气体介质,其还原产物为Cu4O3和Cu3O,相对于其他气体介质得到的还原产物Cu2O,能将Cu2+还原至更低的价态。还原时间为40 s时,主要还原产物为Cu3O,其氧含量低于Cu O,随着时间延长,亚稳相Cu3O逐渐转变成较稳定的Cu2O;当还原时间为100 s时,析出Cu单质。结论 N2+热氨是还原性较强的气体介质。氧化铜中铜离子价态随还原时间增加而降低,同时伴随亚稳定相Cu3O向Cu2O转变现象。还原过程中高能电子对Cu O颗粒有加热熔融作用,激发态的活性粒子发挥主要的还原作用。     

Nanoparticles Modeling in Axially Injection Suspension Plasma Spray of Zirconia and Alumina Ceramics

Suspension plasma spray (SPS) is a thermal spray method in which nanoparticles are injected into the plasma jet with the help of suspension droplets to achieve thin and finely structured nanocoatings. The nanoparticles experience three in-flight stages: injection within the suspension droplets, discharge of the nanoparticle agglomerates after the evaporation of the suspension solvent, and tracking of the nanoparticle or agglomerates during the momentum and heat transfer with the plasma jet before coating. A numerical model is proposed in this paper for nanoparticle injection, discharge, acceleration, heating, melting, and evaporation. Initial values of suspension droplet size and agglomerate size are selected according to typical experimental data. Noncontinuum effects on particle acceleration and heating, known as Knudsen effects, are considered, as well as the influence of evaporation on the heat transfer. After a comparison with the experimental data, this nanoparticle model is applied for zirconia and alumina axially injected into the suspension plasma spray. Trajectory, velocity, and temperature of the in-flight nanoparticles are predicted for different initial sizes ranging from 30 nm to 1.5 μm; the distributions of the particle characteristics for multiple particles in the spray are also presented. The effects of powder size and material, power input, plasma gas flow rate, and standoff distance on the nanoparticle characteristics have been investigated and discussed.     

Numerical Study on Plasma Jet and Particle Behavior in Multi-arc Plasma Spraying

Plasma jet and particle behavior in conventional single-arc plasma spraying has been subject to intensive numerical research. However, multi-arc plasma spraying is a different case which has yet to be investigated more closely. Numerical models developed to investigate the characteristics of multi-arc plasma spraying (plasma generator, plasma jet, and plasma–particle interaction models) were introduced in previous publications by the authors. The plasma generator and plasma jet models were already validated by comparing calculated plasma temperatures with results of emission spectroscopic computed tomography. In this study, the above-mentioned models were subjected to further validation effort. Calculated particle in-flight characteristics were compared with those determined by means of particle diagnostics and high-speed videography. The results show very good agreement. The main aim of the current publication is to derive conclusions regarding the general characteristics of plasma jet and particle in-flight behavior in multi-arc plasma spraying. For this purpose, a numerical parameter study is conducted in which the validated models are used to allow variations in the process parameters. Results regarding plasma jet/particle in-flight temperatures and velocities are presented. Furthermore, the general characteristics of plasma jet and particle behavior in multi-arc plasma spraying are discussed and explained. This contributes to better understanding of the multi-arc plasma spraying process, in particular regarding the injection behavior of particles into hot regions of the plasma jet. Finally, an example test case showing a possible practical application area of the models is introduced.     

进出油阻尼孔对偏转板射流阀射流流场的影响

应用CFD软件对偏转板射流阀进出油阻尼孔不同参数条件下的射流流场进行数值模拟,得出偏转板射流阀内部射流速度、压力的分布特征和不同阻尼孔参数D_1、D_2、L_1、L_2对射流速度、压力的影响规律。研究发现:射流速度由喷嘴处的最大值先逐渐减小,在0.8 mm位置处又上升到仅次于喷嘴射流速度的较大值;射流压力先增大后又在0.8 mm位置处减到较小值,最后在两接收口间阀体处达到射流压力最大值。参数D_1对通过V型导流窗口的射流流量、射流压力和恢复压差起决定性作用;增大参数D_2时射流速度曲线向上平移而射流压力曲线向下平移。参数L_1对射流压力有影响而参数L_2对射流场的影响可以忽略。研究结果为高性能偏转板射流伺服阀的工程设计和优化提供参考。     

冷等离子体射流中微细电火花加工特性研究

采用晶体管脉冲电源,在氧气辅助氮气等离子体射流、氮氧混合等离子体射流及外部压缩空气辅助氮气等离子体射流等不同冷等离子体介质中进行了微细电火花加工特性的实验研究,以期确定加工过程稳定的工艺条件,达到提高加工效率和加工质量的目的。在氧气辅助氮气等离子体射流实验中发现,随着氧气流量的增加,材料去除速度和表面粗糙度值均有增大趋势;采用压缩空气辅助氮气等离子体射流的电火花加工在表面质量、边缘质量方面均优于氧气辅助氮气等离子体射流加工。     

Study of the Synchronous Injection in a Controlled Pulsed Arc Plasma

In the field of plasma spray technologies, new processes are developing to obtain coatings with nanostructured architectures. Difficulties of understanding and controlling the process originate from the continuous injection of a liquid material and the power instabilities of the current torches which strongly affect the heat and momentum transfers to the nanometric particles. This paper reports an original method to make TiO₂ coatings by suspension plasma spraying. A direct current (DC) power supply applying time-modulated current amplitude to a custom DC torch is used to generate at low power (1.5 kW) a pulsed laminar plasma jet with periodic oscillations of its properties. To make best use of this pulsed mode, a synchronization device was developed. It allows triggering from the arc voltage an inkjet nozzle to deliver at a precise moment a single droplet to improve the control of plasma/material interaction. An ink of TiO₂ anatase solid particles is formulated to be compatible with a drop-on-demand printhead dispenser. In-flight diagnostic is made by optical emission spectroscopy and a fast shutter camera. TiO₂ coatings are characterized by scanning electron microscopy, x-ray diffraction and transmission electron microscopy. Results show that homogeneous TiO₂ coatings of nanostructured cauliflowers shapes are obtained thanks to the controlled injection system. A competition between nucleation mechanism and liquid particles deposition are also observed. These deposits correspond to a mixture of anatase and rutile phases.     

Preparation of Carbon-Doped TiO2 Nanopowder Synthesized by Droplet Injection of Solution Precursor in a DC-RF Hybrid Plasma Flow System

Carbon-doped titanium dioxide nanopowder has received much attention because of its higher photocatalytic performance, which is practically activated not only by UV, but also by visible light irradiation. In the present study, C-TiO₂ nanopowder was synthesized by droplet injection of solution precursor in a DC-RF hybrid plasma flow system, resulting in higher photocatalytic performance even under visible light irradiation. In-flight C-TiO₂ nanoparticles reacted with the high concentration of carbon in plasma flow and were then deposited on the surfaces of two quartz tubes in the upstream and downstream regions of this system. The collected C-TiO₂ nanopowder contained anatase-rutile mixed-phase TiO₂ and TiC, the contents of which depended on the location of the powder collection, the temperature, and the duration of plasma treatment. Highly functional C-TiO₂ nanopowder collected in the downstream region exhibited a higher degradation rate of methylene blue than that of single-phase anatase TiO₂, even under visible light irradiation, in spite of being TiC.     

大气等离子射流中粒子飞行行为的试验测量

为考察等离子熔射中粉末的飞行过程,应用芬兰Oseir公司等离子喷涂在线监测和分析设备SprayWatch对射流中粒子的温度、飞行速度和粒子流量进行了测量,探讨了等离子弧电压、电流、功率以及送粉量等参数对粒子飞行状态的影响.结果表明:同等功率下,电流对粒子速度的影响高于电压,电压对粒子流量的影响高于电流,电压、电流对粒子温度则呈现交替重要的影响;在电流400A、电压50V下粒子流量随送粉量的增加呈现低-高-低的"山峦"状变化,反映了粒子飞行路径和分布的变化.     

基于ANFIS的磨料水射流切割模型

建立了基于自适应神经网络模糊推理系统(ANFIS)的AWJ切割模型，对给定的切割工件、射流压力和切割质量该模型能快速、准确、可靠地预测切割速度．可应用于AWJ切割加工的参数选择、工艺优化及加工规律数值仿真等。