Role of family and peers in the development of prototypes associated with substance use.

Prior research and theory suggest that adolescents often experiment with substances to acquire desired social images. However, little research has addressed the developmental precursors leading to favorable evaluation of substance users. This study tested a model of parental and peer influence on adolescent prototypes using a longitudinal data set of 463 rural adolescents. For both drinking and smoking, positive prototypes of substance users were best predicted by peer affiliations. Adolescents who affiliated with peers who practiced and encouraged substance use developed more positive prototypes of people who drink and smoke. These social images, in turn, predicted subsequent use of alcohol and cigarettes. In contrast to peers, parents had little direct influence on prototypes but did indirectly affect images through the adolescents' choice of peers. Unexpectedly, there was evidence of a negative modeling effect of parental substance use, such that parental smoking predicted more negative prototypes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Ecological predictors of substance use in middle school students.

The current study examined important predictors of substance use during early adolescence. The authors hypothesized that adolescents' relationships with key adults (i.e., teachers and parents) influence their choices to use substances indirectly through links with their decisions regarding peer groups. A total of 461 middle school students from an affluent suburban community completed self-report measures of authoritative parenting, perceived social support from teachers, affiliation with rule-breaking and substance-using peers, and frequency of alcohol, cigarette, and drug use. Results of structural equation modeling supported the hypothesized model. Authoritative parenting and teacher support accounted for 31% of the variance in affiliation with deviant peers which, in turn, accounted for 27% of the variance in adolescent substance use; direct paths from parenting and teacher support to substance use were not indicated. Implications for school psychologists' involvement in substance use prevention and intervention are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Peer and partner drinking and the transition to marriage: A longitudinal examination of selection and influence processes.

This study examined the longitudinal relationships among adult drinking, partner drinking, and peer drinking over the transition to marriage. Newlywed couples were assessed with respect to alcohol involvement, peer drinking, and risk factors and reassessed at their 1st anniversary. Husbands' premarital drinking was predictive of wives' drinking at the 1st anniversary, indicating partner influence. The results did not support a peer-influence hypothesis in that peer drinking at marriage was not predictive of husbands' or wives' drinking at the 1st anniversary. There was evidence, however, for a peer-selection effect, with husbands' premarital drinking predicting peer drinking for both husbands and wives. Wives' premarital drinking was unrelated to the subsequent drinking of their peers or their husbands' peers. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Differences and consistency between same-sex and other-sex peer relationships during early adolescence.

Studied, with 3 samples, children's and early adolescents' preferences for same-sex peers and the consistency of individual differences in reputation and popularity across the same- and other-sex domains. Findings indicate that individual differences in the same-sex preference (1) derived from children's liking of other-sex peers, (2) were consistent over relatively long intervals, and (3) were related to children's preferences for activities requiring gross motor skills. Same- and other-sex popularity had the same reputational correlates, except that acceptance among other-sex peers was more closely tied to prominence in the peer group. These findings are discussed according to children's and early adolescents' perceptions of and experiences with same- and other-sex peers. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Examining the effects of academic beliefs and behaviors on changes in substance use among urban adolescents.

This study examines substance use between 10th and l2th grades in a predominantly African American sample of 785 adolescents from an urban environment. Psychological distress, academic factors, and perceptions of parents and peers are used to explain l0th-grade substance use and changes in use using hierarchical linear modeling. Results indicate that low achievement and motivation, high truancy, and perceptions of peer substance use are associated with higher 10th-grade substance use. Growth curve analyses reveal that adolescents who perceive negative school attitudes among peers are more likely to increase their cigarette and marijuana use. Among high-achieving students, low motivation is a risk factor for increased cigarette use. Implications focused on enhancing motivation, reducing truancy, and understanding adolescents' perceptions of their peers. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

How trajectories of reasons for alcohol use relate to trajectories of binge drinking: National panel data spanning late adolescence to early adulthood.

Developmental changes in both alcohol use behaviors and self-reported reasons for alcohol use were investigated. Participants were surveyed every 2 years from ages 18 to 30 as part of the Monitoring the Future national study (analytic weighted sample size N = 9,308; 53% women, 40% college attenders). Latent growth models were used to examine correlations between trajectories of binge drinking and trajectories of self-reported reasons for alcohol use across young adulthood. Results revealed developmental changes in reasons for use and correlations between the patterns of within-person change in frequency of binge drinking and within-person change in reasons for use. In particular, an increase in binge drinking between ages 18 and 22 was most positively correlated with slopes of using alcohol to get high and because of boredom. Continued binge drinking between ages 22 and 30 was most strongly correlated with using alcohol to get away from problems. Almost no moderation by gender, race, college attendance, employment, or marital status was found. Binge drinking and reasons for alcohol use traveled together, illustrating the ongoing and dynamic connections between changes in binge drinking and changes in reasons for use across late adolescence and early adulthood. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Peer Influences on Risk Behavior: An Analysis of the Effects of a Close Friend.

Cross-sectional research suggests that peer influence has a moderate to strong impact on adolescent risk behavior. Such estimates may be inflated owing to third-variable confounds representing either friendship selection effects or the operation of parallel events. Approximately 1,700 peer dyads in Grades 7 to 11 were studied over a 1-year period to estimate the influence of closest friends on sexual activity and binge drinking. Analyses suggested that peer influence was small but reliable when both selection effects and parallel events were taken into account. Peer influence varied as a function of individual-peer similarity and maternal relations but not in accord with other theoretical predictions. It is suggested that the magnitude of peer effects in previous research may be overestimated in many contexts. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Pluralistic ignorance and college student perceptions of gender-specific alcohol norms.

Students' perceived norms and personal concern about alcohol use were examined in 4 (N=971) experiments. Men reported that same-sex peers were less concerned about campus alcohol practices than themselves or female students; women believed that they were more concerned about campus alcohol practices than both same- and opposite-sex peers (Experiments 1 and 2). Additional evidence suggested that students were not merely engaging in impression management. Men reported more social pressure to drink and greater embarrassment about expressing drinking-related concerns; women expected more severe consequences if they drank excessively (Experiment 3). A male student (vs female student) expressing concerns about alcohol was believed to experience greater difficulties fitting in (Experiment 4). Implications for peer influence and drug use intervention are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Self-injury, substance use, and associated risk factors in a multi-campus probability sample of college students.

This research examined two questions: (1) What is the prevalence of self-injurious behavior (SIB) among college students, overall and by gender, academic level, and sexual orientation? (2) To what extent is SIB associated with different forms of substance use and other risk behaviors? A probability sample of 5,689 students completed an Internet survey on self-injury, mental health, and substance use. Past-year prevalence of SIB was 14.3%, with undergraduates significantly more likely than graduate students to engage in SIB. Drug use and frequent binge drinking were associated with higher rates of SIB. Among those who engaged in any SIB, those who used drugs had higher depression scores, higher prevalence of cigarette smoking, and higher rates of binge eating. In a multiple logistic regression model predicting SIB, depression, cigarette smoking, gambling, and drug use were significant predictors. Information about those at risk for SIB is critical for the design of prevention and intervention efforts as colleges continue to grapple with risky behaviors. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Peer and parental influences on male adolescent drinking

Using data from males aged 16-19 in Buffalo, NY, the present study examines two social mechanisms by which parents and peers influence adolescent drinking--behavioral and attitudinal transmission--and compares the patterns of behavioral and attitudinal transmission for parents and for peers. The study also assesses the relative importance of parents and peers in accounting for adolescent alcohol behavior. The findings indicate that both alcohol behavior and attitudes of parents and peers are significant predictors of adolescent drinking. However, the prediction patterns are reversed. Parental attitudes are more important than parental alcohol behavior, while peer alcohol behavior is more important than peer attitudes. Overall, peers have more influence on adolescent drinking than parents. There is a significant interaction of parental alcohol-related attitudes and age, which indicates that parental alcohol-related attitudes exert a greater effect on younger (i.e., age 16-17) males' alcohol use.     

Substance use among Asian American adolescents: Influence of race, ethnicity, and acculturation in the context of key risk and protective factors.

This study examines the relative influence of race/ethnicity, acculturation, peer substance use, and academic achievement on adolescent substance use among different Asian American ethnic groups and U.S. racial/ethnic groups. Data from the Wave 1 in-home sample of the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health was used to examine lifetime use of alcohol, tobacco, and marijuana in a full adolescent sample of all racial/ethnic groups (N = 20,745) and a subsample of Asian American adolescents (N = 1,248). Path analysis examined the hypothesized relationships of peer substance use and acculturation as risk factors and academic achievement as a protective factor for racial/ethnic groups. The results indicated that when Asian American adolescents were compared to other major U.S. racial/ethnic groups, peer use and acculturation were both significant mediators of smoking, drinking, and marijuana use, and academic achievement mediated each type of use at a trend level. For Asian American ethnic groups, peer use is a risk factor and, to a lesser extent, academic achievement is a protective factor for substance use. Also, although acculturation is a predictor of substance use, when peer use and academic achievement are taken into account, acculturation—like ethnicity—no longer predicts use. Mediation analyses indicated that peer substance use mediates smoking, drinking, and marijuana use; academic achievement does not; and acculturation mediates substance use for some substances and some Asian American ethnic groups. The results are discussed in terms of their implications for understanding how culturally specific approaches can inform preventive interventions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Work Stress, Substance Use, and Depression Among Young Adult Workers: An Examination of Main and Moderator Effect Model.

In this cross-sectional study, main and moderated relationships between 5 job stressors and alcohol consumption, drug use, and depression were examined using data from a community sample of 583 young adults (mean age = 23.68 years). Analyses revealed a few direct associations between high job boredom, low skill variety, and low autonomy and depression measures and heavy alcohol use. There were no direct relationships between job stress and binge drinking, alcohol consumption, drug use, or heavy drug use. In a few cases, job stress-outcome relationships were moderated by intrinsic job motivation or gender. The findings supported a specificity-of-effects hypothesis and underscored the need for examining the processes linking occupational stress to substance use and depression. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Universal intervention effects on substance use among young adults mediated by delayed adolescent substance initiation.

In this article, the authors examine whether delayed substance initiation during adolescence, achieved through universal family-focused interventions conducted in middle school, can reduce problematic substance use during young adulthood. Sixth-grade students enrolled in 33 rural midwestern schools and their families were randomly assigned to 3 experimental conditions. Self-report questionnaires provided data at 7 time points for the Iowa Strengthening Families Program (ISFP), Preparing for the Drug Free Years (PDFY), and control groups through young adulthood. Five young adult substance frequency measures (drunkenness, alcohol-related problems, cigarettes, illicit drugs, and polysubstance use) were modeled as distal outcomes affected by the average level and rate of increase in substance initiation across the adolescent years in latent growth curve analyses. Results show that the models fit the data and that they were robust across outcomes and interventions, with more robust effects found for ISFP. The addition of direct intervention effects on young adult outcomes was not supported, suggesting long-term effects were primarily indirect. Relative reduction rates were calculated to quantify intervention-control differences on the estimated proportion of young adults indicating problematic substance use; they ranged from 19% to 31% for ISFP and from 9% to 16% for PDFY. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Coping With Distress by Eating or Drinking: Role of Trait Urgency and Expectancies.

The authors propose that trait urgency (the tendency to act rashly when distressed) is a risk factor for both alcohol abuse and bulimic symptoms, that disorder-specific expectancies influence whether one engages in one behavior or the other, and that expectancies moderate urgency's influence on those behaviors. Cross-sectional findings were consistent with the model. Problems from alcohol use were comorbid with binge eating and purging. Trait urgency was associated with both behaviors. Alcohol expectancies were associated with drinking levels and with problem drinking, but not with eating. Eating expectancies were associated with binge eating, but not with alcohol use or problems. Urgency's effect on binge eating was moderated by expectancies, but its effect on alcohol use and problem drinking was not. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Consensus information and fundamental attribution error: The role of development and in-group versus out-group knowledge.

24 4-yr-olds, 24 9-yr-olds, and 24 undergraduates watched a target actor select an item from an array, and other actors either agreed (high consensus) or disagreed (low consensus) with the choice. Actors were either peers or nonpeers of the Ss, and the target's choice did or did not match the S's own preference. Ss were asked why the actor liked the chosen object best. Ss in all age groups appropriately used the consensus information. Nine-year-olds and adults, however, were much less likely to use the consensus information when judging peers than when judging nonpeers, suggesting the use of self-provided consensus information. Four-yr-olds made greater entity attributions when they agreed with the target actor's choice than when they disagreed, suggesting that young children use self-reference as a basis for normative expectancies. There was also a developmental shift in general attributional bias. Nine-year-olds and adults had a person bias for peer targets, but they had no attribution bias for nonpeer targets. Four-year-olds had an entity bias for both peer and nonpeer targets. (28 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Transactive discussions with peers and adults.

Piaget (1932) hypothesized that peer and adult–child discussions of moral dilemmas are qualitatively different and that children are more likely to use reasoning when interacting with peers. To test this hypothesis, the present study compared the interactive styles of child–child and adult–child dyads engaged in discussions of moral dilemmas, focusing on the use of logical operations (transacts). 48 7- and 11-yr-old girls were paired with either a female agemate or their mother. Ss used transacts in a higher proportion of their conversational turns when interacting with peers than when interacting with mothers. Ss produced proportionally more transactive responses when interacting with mothers because mothers produced proportionally more requests for idea clarification than did peer partners. Self-generated transacts, on the other hand, were produced proportionally more often with peers. When paired with peers, Ss produced transactive statements that operated on the partner's logic more often rather than clarifying their own logic. Results support Piaget's contention that moral discussions with peers feature a more spontaneous use of reasoning than do discussions with adults. (21 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Binge drinking trajectories from adolescence to emerging adulthood in a high-risk sample: Predictors and substance abuse outcomes.

This study describes binge drinking trajectories from adolescence to emerging adulthood in 238 children of alcoholics and 208 controls. Mixture modeling identified three trajectory groups: early-heavy (early onset, high frequency), late moderate (later onset, moderate frequency), and infrequent (early onset, low frequency). Nonbingers were defined a priori. The early-heavy group was characterized by parental alcoholism and antisociality, peer drinking, drug use, and (for boys) high levels of externalizing behavior, but low depression. The infrequent group was elevated in parent alcoholism and (for girls) adolescent depression, whereas the nonbinger and late-moderate groups showed the most favorable adolescent psychosocial variables. All 3 drinking trajectory groups raised risk for later substance abuse or dependence compared with the nonbingers, with the early-heavy group at highest risk. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of adult and peer social initiations on the social behavior of withdrawn, maltreated preschool children.

The present study compared peer and adult social-initiation interventions that were designed to increase the positive social behavior of withdrawn, maltreated preschool children. Thirty-six maltreated subjects were randomly assigned to peer treatment, adult treatment, or control conditions. In the peer treatment conditions, peer confederates were trained to make play overtures to play-group dyads. Adult and peer confederates were matched in the number of positive initiations made during treatment. Conditions for the control group were identical to those for the other groups except the control-group peers or adults were not trained to make initiations. The results indicated significant pre–post differences favoring the peer treatment group in both treatment and generalization settings. School adjustment data supported these findings. Additionally, there were no significant differences between the adult treatment group and the control group on any measures. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Adult:young ratio influences song acquisition in female European starlings (Sturnus vulgaris).

One parallel between humans and most songbirds is the fact that young require social interactions with an adult to acquire specific vocalizations. Songbirds are considered good models for comparative studies, although reports to date concern almost exclusively male songbirds. In addition, adult influence on vocal communication is generally investigated only in restricted social contexts (usually dyads). Here, the authors analyzed song learning and spatial associations among young female starlings that were maintained for 1 year in dyads (1 adult, 1 young), triads (2 adults, 1 young) or a larger group (7 young, 2 adults). Segregation by age was seen in the triads and in the larger group. The influence of adults (proportion of songs copied from adults) decreased as the young adult ratio increased. Unusual temporal features were observed in young maintained in triads and young neglected copying adult songs in the presence of peers. These results are among the first to explore the circumstances under which females learn and from whom they learn. They also add new insight to a wide range of questions about social influences on learning. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)