Gluten‐free pasta: effect of green plantain flour addition and influence of starch modification on the functional properties and resistant starch content

Green plantain flour (GPF) is rich in indigestible carbohydrates, especially in resistant starch (RS). The objective of this study was to improve the functional pasta properties and RS content by producing gluten‐free (GF) pasta based on rice flour with different amounts of GPF addition (15–60% of total flour blend). Egg albumen (3.5–6.0% of total flour) and dough moisture (36–40%, dough humidity%), at constant emulsifier (0.5% of total flour) addition, were optimised in the first trials. The results showed that an addition up to 30% GPF with higher amount of egg albumen (6%) at dough moisture of 38% provided pasta with acceptable cooking quality and high RS content. Some qualities and/or RS content of GF pasta samples was further improved by adding 30% pregelatinised flours from the native GPF or drum‐dried green banana flour (DDGBF) in combination with applying varied steps of cooking and/or cooling, which were applied after pasta extrusion prior to drying them. The study suggests that GPF, in its native form, but particularly when pregelatinised, is a promising ingredient to be used for the production of GF pasta.     

Cooking quality characterisation of ‘spaghetti’ based on soft wheat flour enriched with oat flour

The cooking quality of pasta based on soft wheat flour and supplemented with three percentages of oat flour was studied. Results showed that oat flour modified deeply the cooking quality of spaghetti in comparison with samples based on only soft wheat flour. These effects were attributed to both starch‐lipid complex formation and presence of β‐glucans that weak gluten network. An increase in optimal cooking time with increase in oat percentages was observed (480 vs. 630 min). Samples enriched with oat flour showed a good‐quality cooking total organic matter (TOM values ranged from 1.4 to 2).     

Effect of xanthan gum on processing and cooking quality of nontraditional pasta

The physicochemical properties of three different commercial sources of xanthan gum (XG) were determined, and its subsequent effect on the processing and cooking quality of pasta containing nontraditional ingredients was characterised. Commercial durum flour was fortified with nontraditional ingredients (soya flour or oat flour, 10% w/w) and XG (2% w/w). Protein content, ash content, bulk density, water‐holding capacity and total glucose content significantly varied among XG samples from different vendors. Xanthan gum increased dough strength of durum flour and the extent of strengthening varied with vendor of XG. For example, time‐to‐peak ranged from 2.75 to 4.25 min; peak width from 2.5 to 3.75 BU; and end width from 2 to 3 BU depending on the vendor of XG. Processing properties differed depending on commercial source. Commercial XG that had the finest particle size required the lowest mechanical energy (range 253–270 J s^?1) and had the greatest extrusion rate (range 3.38–3.65 g s^?1), both of which resulted in the lowest specific mechanical energy (range 69–79 J g^?1) required to extrude spaghetti samples.     

Effect of Ingredients on the Quality of Gluten‐Free Sorghum Pasta

Sorghum is an underutilized cereal in human food production, despite its flour being a potential gluten‐free (GF) source in the development of several foods. Thus, the aim of the present investigation was to evaluate the effects and interactions of different ingredients on cooking quality and texture of GF pasta. Egg albumen (A), egg powder (E), xanthan gum (X), and pregelatinized corn starch (P) were used as ingredients, and Box‐Behnken experimental design was applied to study the effects of these ingredients on pasta cooking behavior, color, and texture attributes. Responses were fitted to a second order polynomial equation, and multivariable optimization was performed using maximization of general desirability. Next, optimal formulations were validated, compared with two commercial gluten‐free pastas by sensory evaluation, and finally, an industrial assay was carried out. Regression coefficients indicated that A and P improved cooking properties while A and E contributed the most to improving the pasta textural properties. As, X and P effects varied depending on the kind of sorghum flour used, the optimal formulations levels were different, but in both cases these models were satisfactory and capable of predicting responses. The industrial assay was carried out with white sorghum flour because it showed a higher acceptability in the sensory evaluation than brown sorghum flour pasta. This industrially made pasta resulted in slightly better cooking properties than the laboratory produced one, with the formulation adapting well to the conventional wheat pasta industrial process. Gluten‐free sorghum pasta was produced, showing good cooking and textural properties and being a suitable option for gluten‐sensitive individuals.     

Effect of extrusion variables on antioxidant activity,total phenolic content and dietary fibre content of gluten‐free extrudate from germinated Chenopodium (Chenopodium album) flour

A Box‐Behnken design was used to study the effects of feed moisture content (18–20%), barrel temperature (115–135 °C) and screw speed (225–275 rpm) on the responses; antioxidant activity, total phenolics, dietary fibre, colour (L‐value), hardness, expansion ratio, water absorption index and overall acceptability for development of gluten‐free extrudate based on germinated Chenopodium album flour. Second‐order polynomial fitted model showed that temperature most significantly (P ≤ 0.05) affected the antioxidant activity (AoxA), total phenolics (TPC), expansion ratio, hardness and overall acceptability (OA). Antioxidant activity, total phenolic content and dietary fibre of extrudate varied from 11.56 to 15.93%, 56.77 to 81.28 mg/100 g and 18.65 to 22.06 g/100 g, whereas the lightness and hardness of extrudates ranged from 64.02 to 68.35 and 12.26 to 19.49 N, respectively. The results of this study validate the production of functional and acceptable snack product made from C.  album flour by extrusion cooking.     

A study on development of Gluten free pasta and its biochemical and immunological validation

The present study is aimed at the development of Gluten free pasta with enriched protein content, and evaluation of product quality and its allergenicity. The pasta was developed using high protein flours such as Soya flour, Channa flour, Sorghum flour and Whey Protein Concentrate (WPC) along with gums. Prepared pasta was analysed for its quality characteristics and was subjected to immunological tests such as ELISA and Dot-Blot. Cooking quality of the pasta revealed that Gluten free pasta had a little higher cooking loss than that of Triticum durum pasta (control) and with addition of gums the starch loss was decreased. Gluten free Pasta was comparable to control in all other quality parameters. The amylose content of all pasta ranged from 2.14 to 3.1 g/100 g which was lower than the control (3.9 g/100 g). It also showed less starch digestibility and high protein digestibility. SDS-PAGE pattern showed distinct protein profile of Gluten free blends where bands corresponding to wheat allergen profile were not observed. Dot-Blot and ELISA confirmed that antibodies developed against gliadin did not recognize these proteins. Hence it can be concluded that the developed Gluten free pasta with high protein can be consumed by individuals who exhibit allergic symptoms to wheat gluten.     

Cooking and texture properties of gluten‐free fettuccine processed from defatted flaxseed flour and rice flour

Nonconventional raw materials have been applied in gluten‐free pasta, to meet the demand of people with coeliac disease. The objective of this study was to evaluate the cooking properties and texture of pasta formulated with rice flour, defatted flaxseed flour and pregelatinised mixed flour of rice and flaxseed (80:20). For this experiment, simplex design was used. Cooking properties and texture were found within the quality limits established for this type of product. The pasta with the most desirable properties (short optimum cooking time (OCT), less solid loss (SL) and intermediate mass increase (MI)) was that one formulated with 43 g 100 g^?1 of pregelatinised flour, 47 g 100 g^?1 of rice flour and 10 g 100 g^?1 of defatted flaxseed flour. This formulation can be characterised as a food rich in dietary fibre and of high nutritional value.     

Effects of toasting on the carbohydrate profile and antioxidant properties of chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) flour added to durum wheat pasta

The effects of the toasting process on the carbohydrate profile and antioxidant properties of chickpea flour were studied, along with the cooking behaviour, and antioxidant and nutritional properties of pasta enriched with the chickpea flour. The toasting process increased the resistant starch, insoluble dietary fibre and antioxidant properties of the flour. Addition of chickpea flour (raw and toasted) to durum wheat semolina changed the carbohydrate profile in the uncooked and cooked enriched pasta, especially with the toasted chickpea, and worsened the overall quality of the pasta. The increase in total phenolic content and total free phenolic acid content in the uncooked pasta was due to positive effects of addition of the chickpea flours, while the increase in the bound phenolics fraction in the cooked pasta was from the durum wheat, which was crucial for its high concentrations of ferulic acid. The increase in the free fraction of the Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity in cooked pasta was consistent with the addition of chickpea.     

Fructans,water‐soluble fibre and fermentable sugars in bread and pasta made with ancient and modern wheat

The aim of this study was to determine wheat constituents in bread and pasta that might result in intestinal gas production. Fructans, water‐soluble arabinoxylans, arabinogalactan proteins and fermentable sugars were followed in bread and pasta made with ancient (Khorasan wheat; emmer) and modern wheats (common wheat; durum). After fermentation for 180 min, 80% of fructans were eliminated and higher levels of fructose than glucose accumulated in bread dough supplemented with sucrose. Whole‐grain Khorasan wheat and emmer flours inhibited yeast fermentative activity. Half of fructans, arabinogalactan proteins and sugars were washed out in cooking water for pasta. Water‐soluble wheat arabinoxylans increased in bread and cooked pasta. With very low levels (0.3–0.8%, dry basis), fructans in cooked pasta and, in particular, long‐fermentation bread prepared with modern or ancient wheat would unlikely act as major gas‐forming triggers of gastrointestinal discomfort associated with noncoeliac gluten sensitivity.     

Chemical,biological and sensory evaluation of pasta products supplemented with α‐galactoside‐free lupin flours

α‐Galactoside‐free lupin flour has been used to supplement durum wheat semolina flour in order to increase the nutritive value of pasta products. Supplemented pasta products had a shorter cooking time, higher cooking water absorption, cooking loss and protein loss in water than control pasta prepared with only semolina. Sensory evaluation of cooked pastas showed that products supplemented with 80 g kg^?1 of α‐galactoside‐free Lupinus angustifolius var. Emir flour or with 100 g kg^?1 of α‐galactoside‐free Lupinus angustifolius var. Troll flour showed the same acceptability by panellists as the semolina pasta. These levels of supplementation were selected for further studies. The cooked α‐galactoside‐free lupin/semolina pastas showed higher amounts of protein, dietary fibre, calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, zinc and antioxidant capacity than control pasta and a reasonable level of vitamin B₁, vitamin B₂ and vitamin E. Biological assessment of cooked pastas indicated that the true protein digestibility did not change after the fortification of semolina but protein efficiency ratio increased sharply in the pasta supplemented with α‐galactoside‐free lupin flours (2.07 and 1.92 for Emir and Troll lupin varieties, respectively) in comparison with the control pasta (1.11). It is concluded that the α‐galactoside‐free lupin flours are an adequate ingredient to improve the nutritional quality of pasta products without adding flatulent oligosaccharides. Copyright © 2006 Society of Chemical Industry     

Amaranth flour,cassava starch and cassava bagasse in the production of gluten‐free pasta: technological and sensory aspects

The objective of the present research was to analyse the combined effect of pregelatinised cassava starch and bagasse (70:30) flour, cassava starch and amaranth flour on the cooking properties of pasta, verify the acceptance and buying intention of the product with the best technological characteristics, and finally compare them with commercial products made with regular and whole wheat flour. The vermicelli‐type pasta obtained in this study in the proportion of 10:60:30 (pre‐gelatinised flour:cassava starch:amaranth flour) showed the best results in the quality tests, with a cooking time of 3 min, mass increase of 101.5% and 0.6% solids loss to the cooking water, superior to the commercial pasta. Acceptance testing showed that this was a very good pasta (score of 7.2 on a 9‐point scale) and obtained 42% buying intention amongst the consumers. The elaboration of pasta containing pregelatinised cassava starch and bagasse (70:30) flour, cassava starch and amaranth flour was shown to be a feasible alternative with respect to the technological and sensory aspects, and could be consumed by those suffering from gluten intolerance.     

Effects of hydrocolloids on chemical properties and cooking quality of gluten‐free spaghetti

The effects of different hydrocolloids on chemical composition and cooking quality of spaghetti based on maize and oat flours were investigated. Rheological and texture properties of the gluten‐free dough were also assessed. Amount of 2% of gellan gum, carboxymethylcellulose, pectin, agar, egg protein powder, tapioca starch, guar seed flour and chitosan were separately added to the formulation. The samples enriched with hydrocolloids generally showed a different rheological behaviour compared with the control samples. As regards chemical composition, spaghetti with chitosan showed a value of insoluble dietary fibres (8.0%) higher than the control ones (3.9%). Moreover, results highlighted that most hydrocolloids improved cooking quality and texture properties of spaghetti (adhesiveness, cooking loss, hardness), thus supporting their application in gluten‐free pasta.     

Analysis of ingredient functionality and formulation optimization of pasta supplemented with peanut flour

The working peanut pasta formulation range determined from a previous study was used to determine the effects of varying ingredient quantities and processing conditions on the pasta's quality and consumer acceptance. The variables studied were percent peanut flour substituted for durum wheat flour (30%, 40%, and 50%), amount of carrageenan (2.4%, 2.65%, and 2.9%), and drying temperature (60, 74, and 88 °C) on the final cooked pasta quality. Properties measured include color, texture, moisture content, and cooking loss. A home-use sensory test was conducted to determine consumer preferences and the optimum range for variables studied. Color lightness values ranged from 43.53 to 65.02, decreasing (becoming darker) with increased peanut flour level and increased drying temperature. Maximum cutting force for cooked pasta ranged from 1.59 N to 3.22 N, with higher values only for pasta dried at 88 °C. Moisture content ranged from 57.35% to 69.38%, and values decreased as drying temperature increased. Cooking loss ranged from 5.14% to 7.99%, increasing with higher levels of peanut flour and decreasing with higher levels of carrageenan. When prepared with 30% peanut flour and dried at 60 °C, the pasta was lighter in color, higher in moisture, and softer in texture than the varieties dried at higher temperatures and made with higher levels of peanut flour. Response surface analysis of consumer test data revealed that the optimum peanut pasta should contain between 35% and 45% peanut flour and should be dried between 60 and 71 °C; however, the pasta with 30% peanut flour was also a popular sample in the "favorite" categories. Practical Application: Most non-gluten protein fortification studies in durum wheat pasta found decreased firmness of dry and cooked pasta, increased cooking loss, increased stickiness, and darker product color when compared to traditional pasta. Partially defatted peanut flour is a versatile food ingredient and has high protein content. Since the lysine content of peanuts is higher than wheat, peanuts can be used to supplement wheat flour in food preparation. This study found by partially replacing wheat flour with peanut flour and with incorporation of hydrocolloid emulsifier, such as carrageenan or xanthan gum, dough viscosity, and pasta firmness significantly improved. Peanut pasta with high protein content and balanced amino acid profile can help support consumers with a healthy lifestyle.     

The impact of the protein network on the pasting and cooking properties of dry pasta products

Durum wheat semolina gluten and starch as well as processing conditions determine pasta cooking quality. This study investigated whether, for good organoleptic properties, a permanent protein network needs to be formed during pasta drying or can still be formed during cooking. The cooking quality of 16 spaghetti samples was related to the levels of sodium dodecyl sulphate extractable protein (SDSEP), starch gelatinisation temperatures as well as to the swelling properties of milled dry spaghettis. SDSEP levels in dry and cooked products varied between 31% and 56%, and 12% to 21% of total protein contents, respectively. The highest quality spaghettis had relatively higher levels of SDSEP in the dry product, low starch gelatinisation temperatures and swelling powers, and rigid particles. The lowest quality spaghettis had lower levels of SDSEP and higher gelatinisation temperatures. This work implies that high pasta quality results from an optimal degree of protein polymerisation during drying and/or the subsequent cooking.     

Application of common wheat bran for the industrial production of high‐fibre pasta

The study was conducted on the effect of the addition of common wheat bran on the chemical composition, physical properties, cooking quality and sensory traits of durum wheat pasta. The pasta was produced on an industrial scale, applying an addition of common wheat bran at doses ranging from 20 to 40%. The products obtained were compared to the pasta from whole‐grain durum wheat flour, produced under identical conditions and with commercially available whole‐grain durum wheat pasta. The increase in the content of wheat bran in the pasta caused a significant increase (Duncan test, P ≤ 0.05) of the content of protein, lipids, ash and total dietary fibre (TDF). The application of 25–30% addition of common wheat bran allowed obtaining the products which are as rich in dietary fibre as the pasta prepared at the same technological parameters from whole‐grain durum flour. The pasta containing up to 30% of bran was characterised with lower losses of dry mass and higher resistance to overcooking, in comparison with the pasta made of whole‐grain durum. Simultaneously, the products had very good sensory quality.     

Quality of spaghetti pasta containing Mexican common bean flour (Phaseolus vulgaris L.)

The objective of this research was to study the effect of the addition of common bean flour to semolina on the cooking quality and total phenolic content of pasta. Pasta was obtained at three temperatures (60, 70 and 80 °C) and two levels of added common bean flour (15% and 30%); plain pasta (100% semolina) was used as control. Moisture, optimal cooking time, cooking loss, water absorption capacity, colour change, firmness and total phenolic and furosine contents were measured. The cooking time and water absorption were diminished in spaghetti pasta with added common bean flour; cooking loss increased and firmness decreased as a function of the bean flour percentage. A linear relationship between colour change and common bean flour content in pasta was found. Increases of furosine and phenolic contents in pasta with the addition of bean flour were observed.     

Berry fruits-enriched pasta: effect of processing and in vitro digestion on phenolics and its antioxidant activity,bioaccessibility and potential bioavailability

Pasta samples were made by substituting wheat flour (2.5% and 7.5%) for lyophilised raspberry, boysenberry, and redcurrant and blackcurrant. Total polyphenol content showed minimum variation during processing while anthocyanins presented high degradation. In general, the first minutes of cooking showed the major detrimental effect on antioxidant activity. In vitro starch hydrolysis showed the lowest value with the addition of raspberries and boysenberries. During simulated digestion, polyphenols were released from pasta matrix reaching a 2.3- to 4.3-fold increase in bioaccessible polyphenols. Likewise, values observed for reducing power and free radical scavenging activity ranged from a 0.7- to 2.0-fold and 1.6- to 6.8-fold increase in relation to cooked pasta, respectively. In addition, ≈40% of dialysability was observed for scavenging activity. In conclusion, enrichment of pasta with fine fruits is an effective tool to obtain a product with enhanced antioxidant potential.     

Formulation optimisation of gluten‐free functional spaghetti based on quinoa,maize and soy flours

In this work, the formulation of non‐conventional gluten‐free fresh and dry pasta based on quinoa, maize and defatted soy was optimised. Results showed that the dough samples with high content of maize had the higher value of elongation and shear viscosity and then increased dough firmness. The pre‐gelatinised maize content also affected the rheological properties by increasing the dough firmness. Regarding the dry spaghetti sensorial properties, the surface response plot showed that the overall acceptability of both non‐cooked and cooked spaghetti increases with the increase of the pre‐gelatinised maize content and the decrease of the quinoa flour, whereas the soy flour did not affect the overall quality. In particular, the pre‐gelatinised maize improved the resistance to break and the taste of non‐cooked and cooked spaghetti, respectively. Regarding the fresh spaghetti, results showed that the overall acceptability for fresh non‐cooked spaghetti increases with the increase of the pre‐gelatinised maize content and with the decrease of the quinoa flour; whereas, only the pre‐gelatinised maize content affected the overall acceptability of fresh cooked spaghetti.     

Development of gluten-free fresh egg pasta based on oat and teff flour

Due to increased awareness of consumers about the relationship between food and health as well as the requirements of people following a gluten-free diet, the production of cereal products from raw materials other than wheat is of interest. However, the elimination of the visco-elastic gluten protein represents a technological challenge. During this study, response surface methodology was applied to determine optimal formulations for the production of egg pasta from oat and teff flour. Wheat flour was used as a control. The resulting products were characterised regarding firmness and elasticity, stickiness and cooking loss. The results showed that the mechanical texture of oat and teff pasta was comparable to wheat pasta, however, elasticity was significantly reduced. Compositional analysis was carried out on flour raw materials as well as on the final pasta products, showing that regarding fibre and mineral content, oat and teff samples are nutritionally superior to wheat. In addition, the microstructure was investigated by means of scanning electron microscopy, allowing also the observation of structural changes occurring during cooking. Upon cooking, a distinct outer layer can be observed, resulting from protein denaturation and starch gelatinisation. This structural feature is clearly visible for cooked wheat pasta and but is less apparent for teff and oat pasta.     

Gluten‐Free Precooked Rice‐Yellow Pea Pasta: Effect of Extrusion‐Cooking Conditions on Phenolic Acids Composition,Selected Properties and Microstructure

Rice/yellow pea flour blend (2/1 ratio) was used to produce gluten‐free precooked pasta using a single‐screw modified extrusion‐cooker TS‐45. The effect of moisture content (28%, 30%, and 32%) and screw speed (60, 80, and 100 rpm) on some quality parameters was assessed. The phenolic acids profile and selected pasta properties were tested, like pasting properties, water absorption capacity, cooking loss, texture characteristics, microstructure, and sensory overall acceptability. Results indicated that dough moisture content influenced all tested quality parameters of precooked pasta except firmness. Screw speed showed an effect only on some quality parameters. The extrusion‐cooking process at 30% of dough moisture with 80 rpm is appropriate to obtain rice‐yellow pea precooked pasta with high content of phenolics and adequate quality. These pasta products exhibited firm texture, low stickiness, and regular and compact interne structure confirmed by high score in sensory overall acceptability.