Effects of organizational structure on correlations between member abilities and group productivity.

Presented results from 2 studies, the first carried out in a military setting with 40 4-man groups and the 2nd involving 48 3-man groups of undergraduates. When the group task required Ss to cooperate by coordinating their efforts, group productivity was significantly affected by the average ability of the group and the ability of the dullest member. When the group task required Ss to cooperate by collaborating, group productivity was not significantly affected by either the average ability of the group or the ability of the dullest member. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Influence of achievement need on goal setting, performance, and feedback effectiveness.

91 undergraduates set their own goal to be attained on a perceptual speed task lasting 15 min and received feedback after 7? min of work. Ss' achievement need, as assessed through the Manifest Needs Questionnaire, significantly correlated with the goals set and total number attempted. Partial correlation between achievement need and the total number attempted was nonsignificant when goal difficulty was held constant, suggesting that achievement need affected the total number attempted through its effect on goal difficulty. Only the Ss who were higher in achievement need performed better after than before feedback. The rationale for the moderating effect of achievement need on the feedback–performance relationship and its implication for previous goal-setting findings are discussed. (11 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of stress on goal setting behavior.

The disorganization often induced by stress may be avoided when the organism can modify the situation, as for example, in setting a new goal after failure to reach the first goal. The performance of adolescent boys on a modified form of the Rotter Aspiration Board shows that level of aspiration varies with conditions of stress. From Psyc Abstracts 36:02:2FH80R. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Motivation, behavior, and performance: A closer examination of goal setting and monetary incentives.

Some experimenters often test predictions from theories of motivation using performance outcomes as dependent variables. It is argued that observable behaviors that are likely to be affected by motivation manipulations should be used in combination with performance outcomes. Such procedures would be sensitive to differential effects of manipulations on various behaviors and would allow for investigation of relationships among behaviors and performance outcomes. For this experiment, 60 17–23 yr olds were hired to work individually on a 2-hr construction task. Ss were assigned to 1 of 2 pay conditions (piece-rate vs hourly) and 1 of 3 goal-setting conditions (no goal, quantity, or quality) resulting in a 2?×?3 crossed analysis of variance design. Dependent variables included 3 measures of effort, 3 measures of direction of behavior, and both quantity and quality performance. Method of payment affected quantity performance and effort. Goal setting affected quantity and quality performance and direction of behavior. Implications for designing and testing work motivation systems are discussed. (27 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Reactive self-monitoring: The effects of response desirability, goal setting, and feedback.

Examined the reactive effect of self-monitoring in 3 experiments with a total of 250 undergraduates. In each experiment, performance on a sentence-construction task, the dependent measure, was determined immediately before and after the experimental manipulations were presented. Exp I evaluated the effect of valence or social desirability of the behavior and self-monitoring and being observed by another person; and Exp III replicated the effect of performance standard and also evaluated the role of response feedback. Results indicate that (a) self-monitoring was reactive, (b) the valence given to the target response determined the direction of behavior change, (c) self-monitoring and response valence were necessary but not sufficient conditions for behavior change, (d) monitoring one's own behavior or being monitored by someone else were equally reactive, (e) providing a performance goal or feedback augmented the reactive effects of self-monitoring, and (f) the act of self-recording led to behavior change. (33 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of goal setting on performance and job satisfaction.

Conducted a field experiment to compare participative, assigned, and no-training (comparison) goal setting groups. 37 sales personnel were trained in participative goal setting, and 41 were trained in assigned goal setting. A 3rd group of 44 served as a comparison unit. Mean age range of Ss was 34.3-36.4 yrs. Measures of 4 performance and 2 satisfaction criteria were collected at 4 data points: baseline (before training), and 6, 9, and 12 mo after training. Analysis of variance and Duncan's multiple-range test results indicate that for at least 9 mo both participative and assigned goal setting Ss were more effective in improving performance and satisfaction. The improvements, however, were generally not found 12 mo after training. (17 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The effect of goal setting on group performance: A meta-analysis.

Updating and extending the work of O'Leary-Kelly, Martocchio, and Frink (1994), with this meta-analysis on goal setting and group performance we show that specific difficult goals yield considerably higher group performance compared with nonspecific goals (d = 0.80 ± 0.35, k = 23 effect sizes). Moderately difficult and easy goals were also associated with performance benefits relative to nonspecific goals, but these effects were smaller. The overall effect size for all group goals was d = 0.56 ± 0.19 (k = 49). Unexpectedly, task interdependence, task complexity, and participation did not moderate the effect of group goals. Our inventory of multilevel goals in interdependent groups indicated that the effect of individual goals in groups on group performance was contingent upon the focus of the goal: “Egocentric” individual goals, aimed at maximizing individual performance, yielded a particularly negative group-performance effect (d = –1.75 ± 0.60, k = 6), whereas “groupcentric” goals, aimed at maximizing the individual contribution to the group's performance, showed a positive effect (d = 1.20 ± 1.03, k = 4). These findings demonstrate that group goals have a robust effect on group performance. Individual goals can also promote group performance but should be used with caution in interdependent groups. Future research might explore the role of multilevel goals for group performance in more detail. The striking lack of recent field studies in organizational settings that emerged from our brief review of trends in group goal-setting research should be taken into account when designing future studies in this domain. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of goal setting and commitment on increasing metal recycling.

Conducted a field experiment, in which 120 college students were asked to conserve energy by collecting aluminum cans for recycling. Half of the Ss were provided with an explicit goal, whereas half were not. In addition, half of the Ss consented to having their names associated with the project, whereas half remained anonymous. Ss collected cans for 2 wks, and the result of their collection efforts revealed a reliable effect only for the manipulation of standard: Ss who received an explicit standard collected more cans than those without a standard. (6 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Moderating effects of goal acceptance on the relationship between group cohesiveness and productivity.

Despite the fact that several researchers have suggested that goal acceptance moderates the relationship between group cohesiveness and group productivity, only 1 study (C. N. Greene, 1989) has directly tested this proposition, and virtually no study has examined whether leaders who foster group goal acceptance actually do enhance the relationship between group cohesiveness and group productivity. Two studies were conducted to address these issues. In Study 1, goal acceptance was found to moderate the relationship between group cohesiveness and the quantity of performance of 40 machine crews in a paper mill located in the northeastern United States. In Study 2, the extent to which leaders fostered the acceptance of group goals was found to moderate the relationships between group cohesiveness and quantitative measures of group productivity in 71 insurance agency units located throughout the United States. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of assigned and participative goal setting on performance and job satisfaction.

Evaluated the job performance of 41 female typists under participative or assigned goal setting conditions over a 10-wk period. Significant productivity improvement occurred in both conditions during the 2nd 5 wks. There was no significant difference between conditions with respect to goal difficulty or frequency of goal attainment. Job satisfaction declined slightly in both conditions. Individual trait measures such as need for independence did not moderate the effects of either type of goal setting. (17 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of gender, setting, and research productivity on intern and employment suitability ratings.

To examine possible associations between research activity and rated suitability of internship and employment, 72 counseling psychology faculty members and staff members at university counseling center intern training programs rated internship and employment suitability of applicants with differing degrees of research productivity. Three factors were studied: employment setting of raters, sex of applicant, and research productivity of applicant. Raters' perceptions of applicants' counseling performance, suitability for internship, and suitability for employment were all significantly associated with applicants' research productivity, in some instances negatively so, especially for females. (8 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Disentangling achievement orientation and goal setting: Effects on self-regulatory processes.

H. Heckhausen and J. Kuhl's (1985) goal typology provided the conceptual foundation for this research, which examined the independent and integrated effects of achievement orientation and goal-setting approaches on trainees' self-regulatory activity. Using a complex computer-based simulation, the authors examined the effects of 3 training design factors--goal frame, goal content, and goal proximity--cutting across these 2 theoretical domains on the nature, focus, and quality of the self-regulatory activities of 524 trainees. Results revealed that all 3 factors had a significant influence on self-regulation, with goal content exhibiting the greatest influence. In line with expectations, congruent learning frame and content compared with congruent performance frame and content was beneficial for trainees' self-regulatory activity, incongruent combinations of goal frame and content were better than congruent performance frames and content, and effects for the incongruent combinations cutting across the domains were asymmetrical. Theoretical extensions for further disentangling these distinct domains and training design implications are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A note to teacher: Improving student behavior through goal setting and feedback.

Examined the effects of goal setting and feedback applied to teacher behavior as a means of producing desired changes in students' behavior during consultation. Ss were 2 6-yr-old male students enrolled full time in a classroom for children with emotional disturbances. The classroom teacher: (1) identified up to 4 desired behaviors to increase for each student, (2) set a goal for the number of times she was to praise each student during a daily activity period, and (3) was given a feedback note each day listing the identified target behaviors as prompts and indicating whether she did or did not meet her self-imposed goal based on a classroom observation. The intervention was effective at increasing student behavior and was judged by the teacher to be acceptable. The implications of these results for incorporating teacher goal setting and feedback into consultation as a means of designing simple yet effective school-based interventions are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of task difficulty, goal setting, and strategy on performance of a heuristic task.

Investigated the relative contribution of goal setting and task difficulty to performance on a heuristic computer task with 128 undergraduates who attempted to solve either easy or difficult maze puzzles. Each S was assigned either an easy, moderate, or difficult goal or told to do his/her best. One month prior to the experiment, Ss responded to the Neuroticism scale of the Eysenck Personality Inventory to collect data on arousal. Data were also collected on acceptance, commitment, task complexity, and performance. Results show that both goals and task difficulty affected task performance, arousal, and perceptions of task complexity. A linear, rather than curvilinear, relationship was found between task arousal and performance. Contrary to prior research by G. A. Bassett (see record 1980-33518-001), results also show that, when the task was difficult, the setting of a difficult goal led to significantly lower performance. The decrease in performance in the difficult goal condition was attributed to the variation in performance strategy employed by these Ss as opposed to other Ss. It is argued that the setting of difficult goals may not be an effective motivational strategy when a heuristic, rather than algorithmic, solution is needed. (40 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of two types of feedback on goal acceptance and personal goals.

Effects of two types of performance feedback, goal discrepancy (GDF) and past-performance discrepancy (PDF), on acceptance of assigned goals and personal goal levels were examined. Subjects were 110 introductory psychology students, 90 in an experimental and 20 in a control condition, who performed an anagram task for seven trials. Assigned goals for experimental subjects became increasingly difficult. As predicted, assigned goals were rejected when GDF became sufficiently negative. GDF and PDF differed both in sign and magnitude of effects on acceptance and personal goals, indicating that subjects used these feedback discrepancies differently in the goal evaluation process. Unexpectedly, personal goals and performance remained high even after assigned goals were rejected. The importance of understanding factors affecting goal acceptance was discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The effects of goal setting and group size on performance in a social dilemma.

Examined the effect of self-set personal and assigned group goal setting on an individual's behavior in 3- and 7-person groups confronted with a social dilemma. 274 Ss earned between $1.82 and $4.94 by investing money in either a personal account or a group account. Self-set personal goals that were compatible with an assigned group goal led to higher group performance than self-set incompatibly high ("greedy") personal goals. Collective-efficacy in making money, outcome expectancies that cooperation with others leads to the attainment of the group's goal, and group goal commitment correlated positively with group performance. Ss in 7-person groups (N?=?28) were less cooperative than those in 3-person groups (N?=?26). Ss in 7-person groups had lower collective-efficacy, lower outcome expectancies, and lower commitment to the group goal than did Ss in 3-person groups. Furthermore, individual performance in 7-person groups was significantly lower than individual performance in 3-person groups. A social dilemma appears to be a boundary condition for the normally positive effect of group goal setting on group performance. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Joint effect of feedback and goal setting on performance: A field study of residential energy conservation.

The facilitating motivational effect of feedback on performance has been attributed by some to difficult goals set in response to feedback. The present experiment attributes this effect to the presence of both a difficult goal and feedback about performance in relation to that goal. 80 families were asked to set a goal to reduce their residential electricity consumption for several weeks during the summer, half of them by 20% (a difficult goal) and half by 2% (an easy goal). Within each of these groups, half of the families were given feedback 3 times/wk about their consumption. 20 more families served as a control group. As predicted, the 20%-feedback group conserved the most (13.0–25.1%) and was the only one that consumed significantly less electricity than the control. It is concluded that improved performance was a result of the joint effect of feedback and goal setting. The implications of the present research for a national residential conservation strategy are discussed. (20 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of goal setting and supervision on worker behavior in an industrial situation.

Investigated the effects of goal setting by supervisors on 4 performance criteria. A factor analysis of a questionnaire administered to 292 pulpwood producers indicated that goal setting is correlated with high productivity and a low number of injuries only when it is accompanied by supervision. Goal setting without immediate supervision was related to employee turnover. Supervision alone did not correlate with any performance criterion. No relationship was found between the 2 job behaviors and absenteeism. The factor analysis results pertaining to productivity were partially corroborated in a 2nd study involving data collected from 892 additional producers. (24 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Multilevel analysis of organizational goal congruence.

Hierarchical linear modeling was applied to data from 298 school principals and 11,633 teachers to examine the relationships between variables at 2 levels of analysis. J. B. Vancouver and N. W. Schmitt (see record 1991-31872-001) found relationships between individuals' attitudes and their organizational goal congruence. Organizational goal congruence is the agreement between an individual and members of key constituencies within the individual's organization, namely, peers and the supervisor. Using a subset of Vancouver and Schmitt's data, the associations of constituency-level organizational goal congruence with individual attitudes and with the strength of the relationship between individual-level organizational goal congruence and attitude were examined. The results confirmed many of the hypotheses and indicated the merit of using multilevel analytic techniques. The discussion focuses on issues related to levels of analysis and the use of hierarchical linear modeling to study organizational goal congruence. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)