Parafoveal processing of words and saccade computation during eye fixations in reading.

Studied parafoveal word processing during eye fixations in reading to answer two questions: (a) Is the processing of parafoveally available words limited to the identification of beginning letters? (b) Does the parafoveal processing of words affect the following interword saccade? Reading afforded either no parafoveal preview, preview of beginning trigrams, preview of ending trigrams, or preview of the whole parafoveal word. Previews were controlled by replacing original letters either with X's or dissimilar letters. Preview benefits were larger for the whole word previews than for beginning or ending trigram previews. X-masks yielded preview benefits from intact beginning and ending trigrams but dissimilar letter masks yielded benefits from beginning trigrams only. Saccades were larger for whole word previews than for no previews. These results support Logogen-type models of word recognition and a model of saccade computation that posits a time-locked functional relation between the acquisition of parafoveal word information and the positioning of each fixation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Vowel processing during silent reading: Evidence from eye movements.

Two eye movement experiments examined whether skilled readers include vowels in the early phonological representations used in word recognition during silent reading. Target words were presented in sentences preceded by parafoveal previews in which the vowel phoneme was concordant or discordant with the vowel phoneme in the target word. In Experiment 1, the orthographic vowel differed from the target in both the concordant and discordant preview conditions. In Experiment 2, the vowel letters in the preview were identical to those in the target word. The phonological vowel was ambiguous, however, and the final consonants of the previews biased the vowel phoneme either toward or away from the target's vowel phoneme. In both experiments, shorter reading times were observed for targets preceded by concordant previews than by discordant previews. Implications for models of word recognition are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Previewing the neighborhood: The role of orthographic neighbors as parafoveal previews in reading.

In 2 experiments, a boundary technique was used with parafoveal previews that were identical to a target (e.g., sleet), a word orthographic neighbor (sweet), or an orthographically matched nonword (speet). In Experiment 1, low-frequency words in orthographic pairs were targets, and high-frequency words were previews. In Experiment 2, the roles were reversed. In Experiment 1, neighbor words provided as much preview benefit as identical words and greater benefit than nonwords, whereas in Experiment 2, neighbor words provided no greater preview benefit than nonwords. These results indicate that the frequency of a preview influences the extraction of letter information without setting up appreciable competition between previews and targets. This is consistent with a model of word recognition in which early stages largely depend on excitation of letter information, and competition between lexical candidates becomes important only in later stages. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Semantic processing of previews within compound words.

Previous studies have suggested that previews of words prior to fixation can be processed orthographically, but not semantically, during reading of sentences (K. Rayner, D. A. Balota, & A. Pollatsek, 1986). The present study tested whether semantic processing of previews can occur within words. The preview of the second constituent of 2-constituent Finnish compound nouns was manipulated. The previews were either identical to the 2nd constituent or they were incorrect in the form of a semantically related word, a semantically unrelated word, or a semantically meaningless nonword. The results indicate that previews of 2nd constituents within compound words can be semantically processed. The results have important implications for understanding the nature of preview and compound word processing. These issues are crucial to developing comprehensive models of eye-movement control and word recognition during reading. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Color Grouping in Space and Time: Evidence From Negative Color-Based Carryover Effects in Preview Search.

Five experiments addressed the role of color grouping in preview search (D. G. Watson & G. W. Humphreys, 1997). Experiment 1 used opposite color ratios of distractors in preview and second search displays, creating equal numbers of distractors in each color group in the final display. There was selective slowing for new targets carrying the majority color of the old items. This effect held when there was no bias in the preview and only the second search set had an uneven color ratio (Experiment 2). In Experiment 3, participants had foreknowledge of the target color, and effects were shown over and above those due to color biases. Experiment 4 demonstrated negative color carryover even when previews changed color. Experiment 5 showed reduced color carryover effects when previews were presented more briefly. Collectively, the results provide evidence for inhibitory carryover effects in preview search based on feature grouping. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The role of phonological codes in integrating information across saccadic eye movements in Chinese character identification.

Prior research has generally assumed either that phonological codes do not contribute to Chinese character identification or that they do so only through a look-up process at the character level. In 3 experiments, a homophone seen parafoveally aided the identification of a target character that was fixated following an eye movement to the preview location. Moreover, high-frequency phonetically regular characters were named faster than high frequency, phonetically irregular characters. Thus, both lexical and sublexical phonological codes of Chinese characters are involved early in the process of character identification. Orthographic information from the preview was also used in character identification, as orthographically similar previews facilitated target identification as well. The evidence for the extraction of semantic information from parafoveal previews was mixed, as synonym previews facilitated in Experiment 2 but not in Experiment 1. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Lexical priming from partial-word previews.

Two naming and 2 lexical decision experiments examined the use of partial-word previews in visual word recognition. Replicating results of an earlier reading study, the results of Exps 1 and 2 revealed significant benefits from position-specific beginning- and ending-letter previews. Furthermore, benefits from beginning letters were greater for words than for pseudowords. Ending-letter previews showed no corresponding lexical superiority. Exp 3 revealed that preview of position-specific letters from the beginning plus the ending part of target stimuli, which did not reveal a unique word-beginning letter sequence, facilitated the classification of words but not pseudowords. The results support a 2-route model of lexical access in which some partial-word previews afford activation of specific lexical representations, and some partial-word previews afford activation of subword representations. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The influence of source credibility attributions on expectancy theory predictions of organizational choice.

A job preview experiment was conducted with 1 between-Ss factor and 1 within-Ss factor. The between-Ss factor was information source in which the 80 female and 54 male 18–48 yr old college students were presented job information from either professional recruiters or job incumbents. The within-Ss factor was information favourability. Each S received 2 previews. One preview contained only positive information about the job, and the other contained some negative information. After exposure to the 2 job previews, Ss completed an expectancy index for each job, a source credibility scale for each preview, and were asked their job choice intentions. Results show that Ss selected the job for which the preview included some negative information more frequently than they did the job for which the preview included only positive information. Both job attractiveness and source credibility were significantly related to job choice. Information source was not related to perceived attractiveness of a job, source credibility, or job choice. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Use of parafoveally visible characters during the reading of Chinese sentences.

Chinese readers' use of parafoveal character previews was examined. In Experiment 1, the preview of target characters consisted of targets or of graphemically similar, homophonic, or dissimilar characters. Each preview was replaced with the corresponding target when the eyes reached the target location. Oculomotor measures revealed preview benefits for targets, for graphemically similar characters, and for homophonic characters. Experiment 2 showed that parafoveal preview of graphemically similar characters yielded benefits primarily when they shared the phonetic radical with their targets. The phonological relationship between previewed radicals and subsequently viewed targets was ineffective. Chinese character processing thus involves the initial use of orthographic information from the phonetic radical and the activation of the character's phonological form. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Integrating information across fixations during reading: The use of orthographic bodies and of exterior letters.

Eye movements were recorded to determine whether the parafoveally visible orthographic body of a bisyllabic target word facilitated recognition during the next target fixation. Eye-movement-contingent display changes revealed part of the target, including its orthographic body, or its beginning letters, when it was parafoveally available, but the full target was visible after it was fixated. Target viewing durations showed no benefit from parafoveal preview of orthographic bodies. Instead, preview benefits derived primarily from the preview of word-initial letters. Examination of oculomotor activity revealed that single target fixations were common when the pretarget word received more than one fixation; conversely, more than one target fixation was common when the pretarget word had received a single fixation. Interword fixation strategies thus affected target viewing, but use of parafoveal target previews was unaffected by these strategies. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Methods of communication and mediating processes in realistic job previews.

Assigned 164 bank teller applicants (mean age 22 yrs) who were offered jobs to 1 of 3 experimental groups to investigate the effectiveness of presenting realistic job previews. Ss in Group 1 received a job preview from an incumbent teller; Ss in Group 2 received a job preview brochure; Ss in Group 3 served as controls. Substantially fewer Ss in Group 1 left the job 2–3 mo later than did Ss in the other groups. There were no significant differences in job outcome between Ss in Groups 2 and 3. There was also no support for self-selection and commitment to choice as mediating processes. (32 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Active control of locomotion facilitates nonvisual navigation.

In some navigation tasks, participants are more accurate if they view the environment beforehand. To characterize the benefits associated with visual previews, 32 blindfolded participants were guided along simple paths and asked to walk unassisted to a specified destination (e.g., the origin). Paths were completed without vision, with or without a visual preview of the environment. Previews did not necessarily improve nonvisual navigation. When previewed landmarks stood near the origin or at off-path locations, they provided little benefit; by contrast, when they specified intermediate destinations (thereby increasing the degree of active control), performance was greatly enhanced. The results suggest that the benefit of a visual preview stems from the information it supplies for actively controlled locomotion. Accuracy in reaching the final destination, however, is strongly contingent upon the destination's location during the preview. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Investigating newcomer expectations and job-related outcomes.

The initial experiences of newcomers as they enter an organization can provide important information that substantially influences the subsequent relationship between the individual and the organization. For example, the application of realistic job previews (RJPs) often results in desirable organizational outcomes (e.g., increased satisfaction and reduced turnover). RJPs are typically job specific and job-content laden and serve to reduce the expectations of organizational newcomers. The present study indicates that an expectation lowering procedure (ELP), which is not job specific and is relatively content free, may yield similar benefits (i.e., reduce expectations). Both the organizational implications of this research and suggestions for using ELPs in conjunction with RJPs in the newcomer socialization process are offered. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Trainees' experiences of role conflict and role ambiguity in supervisory relationships.

The nature and extent of counselor trainees' experiences with role difficulties were examined in the context of supervision. Role ambiguity arises when trainees are unsure of supervisory expectations for their performance or evaluation; role conflict arises when trainees encounter opposing expectations for their behavior. The Role Conflict and Role Ambiguity Inventory was developed and validated with trainees and supervisors in practicum, internship, and postinternship settings. Results indicate that the inventory is both reliable and valid. As hypothesized, role difficulties were predictive of more work-related anxiety, general work dissatisfaction, and dissatisfaction with supervision. Beginning trainees reported higher levels of role ambiguity than did more experienced trainees. Role conflict seems to be problematic only for advanced trainees, for whom ambiguity is minimal. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of a realistic job preview on job acceptance, job attitudes, and job survival.

A field experiment was conducted in a telephone company to assess the effects of a realistic job preview vs an unrealistic (i.e., "traditional") preview. Of 80 newly hired female telephone operators, those who saw a realistic job preview film subsequently had more realistic job expectations, fewer thoughts of quitting, and slightly higher job survival than those who saw a traditional preview film. There was no difference in job acceptance rates between the 2 groups. Results are discussed in light of the general process of individuals joining new organizations, and suggestions for future research are offered. (30 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Modularity in musical processing: The automaticity of harmonic priming.

Three experiments investigated the modularity of harmonic expectations that are based on cultural schemata despite the availability of more predictive veridical information. Participants were presented with prime–target chord pairs and made an intonation judgment about each target. Schematic expectation was manipulated by the combination of prime and target, with some transitions being schematically more probable than others. Veridical information in the form of prime–target previews, local transition probabilities, or valid versus invalid previews was also provided. Processing was facilitated when a schematically probable target chord followed the prime. Furthermore, this effect was independent of all manipulations of veridical expectation. A solution to L. B. Meyer's (1967b) query "On Rehearing Music" is suggested, in which schematic knowledge contributes to harmonic expectation in a modular manner regardless of whether any veridical knowledge exists. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Remedial self-fulfilling prophecy: Two field experiments to prevent Golem effects among disadvantaged women.

The Pygmalion effect is a self-fulfilling prophecy (SFP) in which raising leader expectations boosts subordinate performance. Although attempts to produce Pygmalion effects have been successful repeatedly among men, attempts to produce Pygmalion effects with female leaders have yielded null results. Also, only 1 experiment has demonstrated the Golem effect (i.e., negative SFP in which low leader expectations impair subordinate performance). In 2 field experiments testing the SFP hypothesis among women leading disadvantaged women, experimental leaders were led to believe that their trainees had higher than usual potential. In reality, the trainees had been assigned randomly. Manipulation checks confirmed that the treatment raised leader expectations toward experimental trainees. Analysis of variance of performance detected the predicted SFP effects in both experiments. These were the first-ever experimental confirmations of SFP among women as leaders. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Strategies for reducing employee turnover: A meta-analysis.

Investigated the relative effectiveness of realistic job previews (RJPs) and job enrichment as turnover reduction strategies. A thorough literature search located 20 experiments (N?=?6,492 Ss) dealing with attempts to reduce turnover in field settings. Several meta-analysis techniques showed that variation in the outcomes of job enrichment studies can be attributed to sampling error alone, whereas variation in the outcomes of RJP studies cannot. A search for moderators in the latter case revealed moderate support for the notion that task complexity affects RJP outcomes. Furthermore, the meta-analyses indicated that job enrichment interventions are about twice as effective at reducing turnover as RJPs. Based on the calculated effect sizes, estimates of savings from turnover reductions are provided. (62 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)