The determination of the mineralogical alteration index and the investigation of the efficiency of the hydrothermal alteration on physico-mechanical properties in volcanic rocks from Köprülü, Afyonkarahisar, West Turkey

The study considers the hydrothermal alteration of the volcanic rocks in the Köprülü region (western Turkey). Four alteration zones related to hydrothermal solutions have been determined: unaltered/fresh (UZ), altered (AZ), ferrous (FZ) and ferrous and manganese (FMZ). The distribution of the zones is closely related to the fracture/fault pattern. In addition to microscopic examination and X-ray diffraction, the physico-mechanical properties of the samples were established. A positive correlation was found between the mineralogical alteration index, water absorption and apparent porosity. However, there is an inverse relationship between uniaxial compressive strength and mineralogical alteration index (MI). The good correlation (r ² = 0.822) between MI and strength ratio (Rs) indicates that MI can be a useful tool in determining the alteration degree of volcanic rocks, which has an important effect on their use in the construction industry.     

Geomechanical properties of the ophiolites (Çankiri/Turkey) and alteration degree of diabase

The alteration state of magmatic rocks is significant in the organization of stability, excavation methods, bearing capacity and engineering applications in civil engineering works for dam construction and basement rock analysis. For this reason, alteration needs to be defined by reliable, controllable and easily applicable methods, and expressed in numerical values. As an example the geomechanical properties of Çankiri serpentinite, gabbro, and diabase have been investigated during a study for determining a dam axis location, and P-wave velocity variation, uniaxial strength, water absorption ratio of diabase determined, all of which were later evaluated under the “unified alteration index” concept, described by the author. Mathematical equations were outlined by regression analysis of the results. Thus, an approach could be achieved to various geomechanical properties and alteration states of the rock, starting with known properties. A relationship such as: Edd=2.942–0.834 Log_e Kc (×10⁵ kg/cm²) was finally established between the dry dynamic elasticity modulus (Edd) and unified alteration index (Kc). Alteration degree can be calculated at a rate as high as 95 % significance, by using the above equation with easily obtainable dynamic elasticity modulus values.     

Influence of weathering on the engineering properties of Harsit granitic rocks (NE Turkey)

Weathering and hydrothermal alteration of the granitic rocks in the Eastern Black Sea Region (NE Turkey) are important phenomena affecting the engineering projects in the region. The study investigated the probable paths of rock-forming mineral transformations due to weathering in the Harsit granitoid rocks, the changes of the major oxides as a consequence of weathering and the effects of weathering on the engineering properties. To identify the changes in the major oxides, the volume concentrations were considered in relation to the dry density. Chemical leaching during weathering was shown to be significant in changing the minerals. It was concluded that the engineering properties of the weathered granitic rocks can be most reliably predicted by P-wave velocity.      

Engineering aspects of limestone weathering in Istanbul, Turkey

 Devonian limestones are widespread in the eastern part of Istanbul, Turkey. To assess the influence of weathering on the geological and geomechanical characteristics of these rocks, research was carried out on some profiles from the study area. Field observations show that the weathering has been rapid and the bedrock has been weathered to a depth of up to 8 m. A model for the weathering of limestones is established and modifications proposed to the material and mass weathering schemes for characterisation of the limestone for engineering uses, as both foundation and construction material. The paper also presents the results of field and laboratory investigations, including weathering characteristics and physical and mechanical properties. Interrelationships were determined for all test results. It is concluded that chemical characteristics and the porosity are good indicators of weathering. Received: 10 July 1999 · Accepted: 17 September 1999     

Weathering indices and their applicability for crystalline rocks

In the recent past, several weathering indices have been proposed to characterize the extent of weathering and weatherability depending upon the nature and requirement of the study. The weathering index provides a quantitative measure of the extent of weathering of rock; hence it can provide input to the prediction models to assess the strength and deformational properties of rocks and classifications of weathered rock material. In the present study some of the important weathering indices, broadly categorized as chemical, (micro) petrographical and engineering weathering indices, are reviewed and studied experimentally for three common rocks of India, namely granite of Malanjkhand, basalt of Nagpur and quartzite of Delhi, along with results of other rocks reported by other researchers. The study reveals that none of the existing chemical weathering indices is valid for genetically different common rock types and useful for engineering purposes. However, loss on ignition (LOI) may provide an approximate estimation of altered minerals (clays and hydroxides) in tested rocks. It has also shown good correlation with petrographic indices and engineering index properties. Among the petrographic indices, crack density (ρ_cr) and unsound constituent (an input to the micropetrographic index) indices provide good correlation with engineering index properties. To quantify the extent of weathering in terms of strength degradation due to weathering in rock, an index is suggested – strength ratio (R_s) – which is the percentage of uniaxial compressive strength (σ_c) of weathered rock with respect to σ_c of fresh rock. Its significance is shown statistically through the relationships with other indices for several rock types including sedimentary and metamorphic rocks. Electronic Publication     

Effect of weathering on the geomechanical properties of the Miocene basalts in Malatya,Eastern Turkey

Miocene volcanic rocks are widely exposed in the eastern Taurids, Turkey. The geomechanical properties and weathering degree of the Middle–Upper Miocene basalts were determined at the Boztepe dam site in Malatya, eastern Turkey. An engineering geology map of the Boztepe dam site was made and the joint sets and the degree of weathering determined in the field. The degree of weathering and RQD values were obtained on some 1,195 m of core which was then compared with a series of geomechanical tests including unit weight, porosity, water absorption, uniaxial compressive strength and compressive wave velocity. The geomechanical properties were compared with the weathering classifications of ISRM (Rock characterization, testing and monitoring, p 211, 1981) and Kilic (Environ Eng Geosci 4:475–483, 1999)      

Investigation of mechanical properties of soft rock due to laboratory reproduction of physical weathering process

The focus of the present study is on soft rocks (moderately weathered granite and artificial rock) that have suffered physical weathering due to changes in temperature and confining pressure. Unconfined compression tests were conducted on moderately weathered granite, and triaxial compression tests were conducted on artificial rocks. Two test plans were conducted to study the effect of weathering. In the first plan, the specimens suffered weathering process cycles under unconfined conditions, followed by triaxial tests with different confining pressures (0 kPa, 30 kPa, 60 kPa, and 90 kPa). In the second plan, the specimens suffered weathering process cycles under a certain confining pressure (0 kPa, 30 kPa, 60 kPa, and 90 kPa), and the shear strength and initial Young's modulus in each weathering cycle was then studied. Finally, based on the formula of the shear wave velocity and initial Young's modulus, the relationships between normalized shear strength and normalized shear wave velocity were found. These relationships can be used in a further study to understand rock strength on site by detecting the shear wave velocity.The results of this study show that artificial rocks (cement treated sand, CTS) can be used as a homogeneous material to simulate soft rock. In the stress-strain curves, the initial Young's modulus showed no significant change when increasing the confining pressure. The initial Young's modulus showed a nonlinear decrease when the weathering process cycle increased. When soft rocks suffer the weathering process at a certain confining pressure, the relationship between normalized shear strength and normalized shear wave velocity was linear. When soft rocks suffer the weathering process at different confining pressures, the normalized shear strength under a lower confining pressure dropped faster than when the confining pressure was higher.     

Influence of loading and heating processes on elastic and geomechanical properties of eclogites and granulites

Increased knowledge of the elastic and geomechnical properties of rocks is important for numerous engineering and geoscience applications(e.g. petroleum geoscience, underground waste repositories,geothermal energy, earthquake studies, and hydrocarbon exploration). To assess the effect of pressure and temperature on seismic velocities and their anisotropy, laboratory experiments were conducted on metamorphic rocks. P-(V_p) and S-wave(V_s) velocities were determined on cubic samples of granulites and eclogites with an edge length of 43 mm in a triaxial multianvil apparatus using the ultrasonic pulse emission technique in dependence of changes in pressure and temperature. At successive isotropic pressure states up to 600 MPa and temperatures up to 600 ℃, measurements were performed related to the sample coordinates given by the three principal fabric directions(x, y, z) representing the foliation(xy-plane), the normal to the foliation(z-direction), and the lineation direction(x-direction). Progressive volumetric strain was logged by the discrete piston displacements. Cumulative errors in V_p and V_s are estimated to be 1%. Microcrack closure significantly contributes to the increase in seismic velocities and decrease in anisotropies for pressures up to 200-250 MPa. Characteristic P-wave anisotropies of about 10% are obtained for eclogite and 3-4% in a strongly retrogressed eclogite as well as granulites. The wave velocities were used to calculate the geomechanical properties(e.g. density, Poisson's ratio, volumetric strain, and elastic moduli) at different pressure and temperature conditions. These results contribute to the reliable estimate of geomechanical properties of rocks.     

The relationship between physical and chemical weathering indices of granites around Seoul,Korea

In order to assess the relationship between chemical weathering indices and physical properties of granite, physical and chemical analyses were performed on both natural and artificially weathered granite samples from the Seoul area, where the pH of the rainfall occasionally drops to below 5. The results suggest that slake durability, uniaxial compressive strength, Ruxton ratio, Parker index, modified weathering potential index, chemical alteration index and loss on ignition effectively revealed changes of the degree of chemical weathering. However, the study showed no such good correlation between chemical and physical properties except dry density against loss on ignition and modified weathering potential index against uniaxial compressive strength. It is recommended that both physical and chemical indices should be used for the classification of weathering grade for the granites in the Seoul area.

---

     

Geo-environmental characteristics of weathering deterioration of red sandstone relics: a case study in Tongtianyan Grottoes,Southern China

It is reasonable to study the destruction and preservation of stone relics from a geo-environmental point of view. The Tongtianyan Grottoes, known as “the First Grottoes in Southern China”, are located in the city of Ganzhou, Jiangxi province, China, and are the largest cave temples in eastern China and southern China. The grottoes were carved into sandstone palisades during the period from the late Tang Dynasty (755–763 AD) to the Republic of China (1912–1949 AD). In China, the Danxia landform is a special landform characterized by red sandstone cliffs. Different from the grottoes located in arid climate regions, the Tongtianyan Grottoes have the lowest latitude (25°45′N) among all the grottoes in China, and the stone relics are under a perennially warm and humid environment. The monuments have suffered from various forms of weathering deterioration, which can be summarized as five types: exfoliation, bio-weathering deterioration, crack, erosion, and loss. Detailed investigations have been conducted to analyze the mechanisms of the weathering deterioration of the stone relics based on different aspects of geo-environmental characteristics. The weathering sandstone samples were analyzed using X-ray diffraction and X-ray fluorescence, and the chemical weathering indices (LOI, WPI, and WI) were calculated. We found that there is a boundary zone at a depth of 10 ± 2.5 mm from the surface to the inner rock based on the curves of the chemical weathering indices, and the rock outside of the boundary zone has much stronger weathering than that inside.     

Index properties of weathered rocks: inter-relationships and applicability

 The paper describes the change in physical and strength properties due to weathering of three crystalline rocks – granite, basalt and quartzite. It draws attention to the relationship between unconfined compressive strength and other measurements such as the point load index, the Brazilian tensile strength and the Schmidt hammer rebound number. The strength recorded is negatively related to the porosity which is considered an important indicator of the weathering state. Received: 13 December 1997 · Accepted: 30 April 1998     

岩石风化程度特征指标的分析研究

岩石风化程度的划分及工程特性研究，对于工程基础面高程的选择以及工程环境或工程材料的利用具有重要意义。关于岩石风化程度划分目前多是采用工程地质定性评价方法，依赖定性的不确定判据进行岩石风化程度划分带有很大随意性。因此，研究和发展定量分析评价方法是必要的。岩石经过风化作用，形成的风化裂隙具有无方向性、不规则发育等特点，与构造作用形成的微裂隙有着本质区别；风化作用改变了岩石的矿物成分，岩石在风化过程中表现出来的阶段性，反映了岩石的不同风化程度。基于对风化岩石显微裂隙的发育状况及其次生充填特点、长石蚀变性质、粘土矿物成分变化等定性资料的分析研究，给出了定量化的统计，建立了岩石风化程度划分的判据。给出的定量指标很好地反映了风化岩石质量，且与反映岩石风化程度的一些物理力学指标存在良好相关性。     

Assessment of chemical weathering of granite stone monuments using reflectance spectroscopy

Reflectance spectroscopy was applied to assess the degree of weathering of the granite sculpture of Buddha in Gyeongju, South Korea, using diagnostic absorption features of representative weathering products (iron oxides and clay minerals). The relative weathering degree map obtained using reflectance spectroscopy corresponds closely with the visual interpretation of exfoliations and cracks. Eight chemical weathering indices (Vogt ratio, weathering potential index, Ruxton ratio, Parker index, modified weathering potential index, chemical index of alteration, plagioclase index of alteration, and chemical index of weathering) determined on granite specimens from three sites in Korea were compared with the quantitative absorption depths of iron oxides and clay minerals. Relatively good correlations were found for the modified weathering potential index and Parker index and the absorption features of iron oxides and good correlations between the weathering potential index and Parker index and the absorption depth of clay minerals. The work has shown the applicability of reflectance spectroscopy as a new non-destructive technique for assessing the weathering of stone monuments.     

Stress ratio effect on fatigue life of tropically weathered rock

This paper investigates the fatigue life of weathered granite and weathered sandstone using a stress ratio of R = 0.17. A small stress ratio is adopted to control data discrepancy between weathered rocks for which stress amplitude is known to affect the fatigue life. The range of varying static strength between weathered rocks, especially for highly weathered rock (grade IV) which has lower static strength, resulted in adopting this small stress ratio. The details of rocks tested, including microscopic petrographic characterization as well as their physical properties obtained from laboratory work, is also explained in this paper. Weathered rock specimens from slightly weathered to highly weathered (grade II, grade III and grade IV) granite and sandstone were used during the investigation. The specimens were representative of rock collected in Sungai Buloh (granite) and Puncak Perdana (sandstone) in Selangor, Malaysia. In order to eliminate the influence of frequency and waveform, all rock specimens (54 in total) were tested under a cyclic compression load with a frequency of 1 Hz using a constant sinusoidal waveform. Result shows that grade IV specimens are the least affected by the small cyclic stress ratio as compared to grade II and grade III specimens. The number of cycles to failure is not dependent on rock weathering grade; it is greatly related to the petrological and microstructure of the individual rock. However, the weathering degree of a rock does contribute to the weakening of the rock's structure, consequently affecting the life of the rock.     

Application of present indices of chemical weathering for precambrian metamorphic rocks in Sri Lanka

Weathered and fresh samples of Sri Lancan rocks (metamorphic) were collected from various localities and analysed for major elements by XRF method (Rigaku, KG-X System, Japan). The amount of water was found by ignation method. The XRF results were used for various weathering indices to find the most suitable chemical index of weathering applicable to Sri Lanka. The values of each index for all samples were obtained and their variations were compared. Out of eight different chemical indices of weathering Ruxton's Ratio, Product Index and Weathering Potential Index are most suitable to find the variations of the degree of weathering in the Sri Lankan rocks. Measuring of H₂O(+) amount of rock material is a good and reliable method to find the degree of weathering to a certain extent.     

Estimating the index properties of deteriorated carbonate rocks due to freeze–thaw and thermal shock weathering

Laboratory tests were conducted on 12 different carbonate rocks to investigate index properties of deteriorated rocks due to physical weathering. Physical weathering due to freeze–thaw and thermal shock action for 20 cycles, was simulated, following the procedure suggested by standard methods. Index properties, P-wave velocity, uniaxial compressive strength and Schmidt hardness, for the three series of the rock samples were determined for fresh, freeze–thaw and thermal shock conditions. It was found that the index properties of rocks treated with freeze–thaw and thermal shock decrease in varying levels with respect to initial values. A model equation predicting the index properties of rocks due to freeze–thaw and thermal shock treatment was developed by multiple regression analysis of measured data. This model explains decrease in index property of a deteriorated rock depending on its initial property and porosity of rock with the coefficients for a specific index property, given in the paper for the both freeze–thaw and thermal shock treatments. Model was validated by statistical tests. In order to estimate the index property for any cycle of freeze–thaw or thermal shock treatment, this model equation was incorporated into a previously suggested model to eliminate a decay constant required for that model to be determined for a specific rock in the laboratory. So, the final model equation could accurately predict a property of a deteriorated carbonate rock depending on treatment cycle, and initial index property and porosity. This was also proved by comparing the model with compressive strength data of a researcher for freeze–thaw cycles.     

Micro-analysis of the role of interfacial transition zone in “salt weathering” on concrete

When concrete elements are partially immersed in the sulfate environment, researchers always attribute “salt weathering”, “salt crystallization” or “physical attack” to the failure of concrete. However, there were few micro-analysis evidences to support this view. In this paper, an attempt was carried out to study whether salt weathering is really responsible for the concrete damage.As we know, the interfacial transition zone (ITZ) between paste and aggregate plays a determining role in the performance of concrete. In this paper, we focused on the role of ITZ in “salt weathering” on concrete. Concrete specimens, made with coarse aggregate and cement paste, were partially exposed to a 5% sodium sulfate solution and a 5% magnesium sulfate solution respectively, in a controlled environment (20 ± 2 °C, and 60 ± 5% RH). After 8 months of exposure, a micro-analysis is performed by means of XRD, ESEM and EDS. The experimental results showed that, in the upper part of concrete above the Na₂SO₄ solution, damage initiated in the ITZ between paste and aggregate due to the formation of ettringite and gypsum. Salt crystallization cannot occur on the paste surface in the ITZ, but it was found on the aggregate surface after damage initiation due to chemical sulfate attack. On the other hand, salt crystallization could occur in the carbonated concrete. There was no trace of salt crystallization in the concrete partially exposed to MgSO₄ solution.     

Characterization of building stones from the ancient Tyana aqueducts,Central Anatolia,Turkey: implications on the factors of deterioration processes

Many archaeological and historical monuments constructed by different civilizations over the last 5500 years can be observed in the Ni?de region located in central Anatolia. The Tyana aqueduct as a continuation of the Roman Pool is one such important historical monument. The aqueducts that carried the water of the Roman Pool to the ancient city of Tyana were constructed during the time of the Roman emperors Trajan, Hadrian and Marcus Aurelius Antoninus. Half of the total length of the aqueducts (3 km) is on the surface and the rest is buried. The engineering properties of the rocks used in such archaeological and historical buildings are very important in terms of conserving these structures for future generations. In this study, the geomechanical and geotechnical features of the Tyana aqueducts were investigated to understand the rock types, deterioration in the stones over time and problems originating from these features. Also, for restoration purposes, the ancient stone quarry areas for the aqueducts were identified, and the chemical, petrographical and geomechanical properties of fresh travertine blocks from these quarries were determined. The main rock type used as building stones in the aqueducts is Mio-Pliocene travertine. Laboratory studies were performed to determine the mineralogical, petrographic and petrophysical properties of the building stone samples. Fresh and used travertine samples were composed exclusively of calcite crystal. The results of chemical analyses were similar for fresh and used travertine samples. To determine the geomechanical properties of the travertines, dry unit weight, water absorption, effective porosity, P-wave velocity, Böhme abrasion test, capillary water absorption and uniaxial compressive strength experiments were conducted. In addition, Schmidt hammer hardness measurements were performed on site for the different levels and different textural characteristics of the belts on the travertines. According to the experimental data obtained, higher strength was displayed by samples with fine grains, massive texture and low porosity. The deterioration effects in most of the travertines used in the original structure are very low. In addition to human effects, the use of small stone dimensions (especially the stones used in belts as keystones) and the use of stone from the same quarry but with features that differ or are inferior are thought to be factors in the destruction of the Tyana aqueducts.     

Valorisation routierè d'arenes et de steriles de carrieres

We study the behaviour of arenites and wastes from quarries—granular material issued from quartzofeldspathic rocks weathering—treated with hydraulic and pouzzolanic binders, in order to use them in road construction. The results of quick hardening tests at 60°C on “Bretagne” and French “Massif central” samples show great promise. As a matter of fact, half of the studied formulations could be used as subbase or road base. Nevertheless some of them are only reaching low strengths, so that a great carefulness is required for quarries and treatments choosing. Besides, this study shows that the efficiency of tested binders (cement, cement+lime, fly ashes+lime) is depending on the natural material characteristics, especially on its fines ratio.     

Hoek-Brown准则中确定地质强度指标因素的量化

 追踪Hoek-Brown准则利用岩块力学参数估算岩体力学参数所采取方法的进展及各种改进措施。指出Hoek创立的最新方法——地质强度指标(GSI)法完全依赖定性描述和个人主观经验的不足,揭示决定地质强度指标的物理因素是岩体结构类型,化学因素是岩石风化状况。引入基于钻孔岩芯不同完整长度的岩体块度指数,以定量地表征岩体结构。分析岩石风化在化学上是原生矿物水解、淋失促使矿物蚀变而导致岩性改变的过程,依此提出表征岩石风化状况的定量指标——岩石绝对风化指数,同时研究推出其计算方法。将岩体块度指数、绝对风化指数在地质强度指标的区间范围概化表上有机结合起来,构成了GSI的定量确定方法。利用该方法估计一公路隧道围岩的变形模量、抗拉、抗压及抗剪强度等力学参数,并计算塌落拱高度。与实测数据对比,其最大误差在14%左右,验证方法的有效性和实用性。