Implicit self-theories of shyness.

Three studies examined implicit self-theories in relation to shy people's goals, responses, and consequences within social situations. Shy incremental theorists were more likely than shy entity theorists to view social situations as a learning opportunity and to approach social settings (Study 1). Shy incremental theorists were less likely to use strategies aimed at avoiding social interaction (Studies 2 and 3) and suffered fewer negative consequences of their shyness (Study 3). These findings generalized across both hypothetical and actual social situations as well as both self-reports and observer reports and could not be attributed to individual differences in level of shyness. Together, these studies indicate that implicit self-theories of shyness are important for understanding individual differences among shy people and suggest new avenues for implicit self-theories research. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

On the self-serving function of social anxiety: Shyness as a self-handicapping strategy.

Tested the hypothesis that socially anxious or shy individuals use their anxiety symptoms as a strategy to control attributions made about their performances in social-evaluative settings (i.e., self-handicapping strategies). 70 female and 72 male undergraduates, classified as low and high socially anxious on the basis of the Social Anxiety and Distress Scale, were given role-play tasks in a 3?×?2?×?2 design. It was predicted that trait-socially anxious or shy Ss would report more symptoms of social anxiety in an evaluative setting in which anxiety or shyness could serve as an excuse for poor performance than would Ss in (a) an evaluative setting in which shyness was precluded as an excuse or (b) a nonevaluative setting. It was also predicted that this self-protective pattern of symptom reporting would not occur for Ss who were not trait-socially anxious because these Ss would not commonly use such symptoms as a self-handicapping strategy. Results support these predictions for males but not for females. Sex differences in the strategic use of shyness are discussed in relation to other research on sex differences in the etiology and correlates of social anxiety. (56 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Shyness and sociability.

Two studies investigated the relationship between shyness (tension and inhibition with others) and sociability (preference for being with others rather than being alone) using 952 undergraduates. A factor analysis of shyness and sociability items revealed 2 distinct factors, indicating that shyness and sociability are distinct personality dispositions. Self-reported shyness showed only a moderate negative correlation with self-reported sociability. Furthermore, the measures of shyness and sociability had different patterns of correlations with other personality scales (e.g., the Public and Private Self-Consciousness scales of the Self-Consciousness Inventory, Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale, and the EASI [Emotionality, Activity, Sociability, Impulsivity] Temperament Survey). On the basis of these findings, it is concluded that shyness is not just low sociability. Next, 4 groups of Ss were selected: shy–sociable, shy–unsociable, unshy–sociable, and unshy–unsociable. Pairs of these Ss, matched for both traits, interacted for 5 min. Shy–sociable Ss talked less, averted their gaze more, and engaged in more self-manipulation than did the other 3 groups. In studying social behavior, it should be known whether Ss are shy but also whether they are sociable. (38 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Shyness and sociability reexamined: A multicomponent analysis.

This research tested questions related to J. M. Cheek and A. H. Buss's (see record 1982-07755-001) prediction that sociability moderates the relation between shyness and dysfunction interaction. In Study 1, a confirmatory factor analysis of Shyness and Sociability scales revealed that these factors are more inversely related than previously recognized. In Study 2, the relations of shyness, sociability, and gender and their interactions with dysfunctional behavior were tested during a conversation with an opposite-sex partner. Using analyses that tested the unique influence of each variable, the results failed to confirm that shy-sociable Ss evidenced more dysfunctional behavior than shy low-sociable Ss. Instead, shyness was the most consistent predictor of behavioral, physiological, and cognitive indexes of anxiety, and shy men were more dysfunctional on some criteria. In particular, shyness differences in perceived visibility of one's nervous behaviors are discussed relative to the role of cognition in shyness. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Videotape reconstruction of emotions and cognitions related to shyness.

This study tested predictions of the self-presentational approach to situational and dispositional shyness within a broader perspective. Forty subjects who were high in self-rated dispositional shyness and 30 subjects who were low in self-rated dispositional shyness watched videotapes of their interaction with a confederate of the experimenter in various situations, including apprehension of evaluation and positive feedback provided by the confederate. The subjects' free verbal responses to particular events during these situations were content-analyzed. Compared with the group lower in shyness, the shy subjects (a) recalled more fear of social evaluation (including fear of positive evaluation) but did not more often report other kinds of fear, (b) had more negatively biased thoughts about the impression made on their partner but not more impression-related thoughts in general, and (c) showed more negatively biased reactions to the positive feedback of their partner. These results support the self-presentational view that fear of being socially evaluated is pivotal to dispositional shyness. However, some unexpected findings suggest that social evaluative situations also arouse fears of having to evaluate others; this would limit self-presentational explanations of situational shyness in these situations. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A comparison of treatment strategies for clients functionally impaired by extreme shyness and social avoidance.

Compared a treatment that combined graduated exposure to fear-provoking situations and training in other-focused social skills with graduated exposure alone and waiting list control conditions. Ss were 52 adults (aged 20–50 yrs) who reported impairment in their social, occupational, and heterosocial functioning due to extreme shyness. Improvement in social functioning was assessed through self-reported social activities in the community, through judges' ratings of a laboratory-based social interaction, and through therapists' ratings. Ss who received a combination of graduated exposure and interpersonal process training improved significantly more on measures of community functioning and therapist ratings than did Ss who received graduated exposure procedures alone or waiting list Ss. (19 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Life course sequelae of childhood shyness in Sweden: Comparison with the United States.

Using data from a Swedish longitudinal project, we predicted timing of marriage and parenthood and age-35 career success from mother-rated shyness in 8–10 year old children. Results are compared with those previously found for Americans. Like shy American boys, shy Swedish boys married and became fathers later than nonshy boys. Unlike American boys, Swedish boys' adult careers were not affected by shyness. Like shy American girls, shy Swedish girls later married and became mothers at the same time as their peers. However, they also attained lower levels of education than nonshy girls. Results suggest that the life consequences of shyness depend upon its culturally defined gender and situation appropriateness. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Exploring processes linking shyness and academic achievement in childhood.

The goal of the current study was to explore the relations between shyness, academic engagement, and academic achievement in childhood. Participants were (n = 125) children (aged 9–13 years) attending public school boards in Canada. Children completed self reports of shyness and were administered a test of nonverbal IQ. Academic achievement was assessed through both teacher ratings and standardized tests of reading comprehension and mathematics. As well, a new teacher-rated measure of academic engagement was created to assess student participation and on-task behavior in the classroom. Among the results, shyness was negatively related to teacher-rated achievement but not related to standardized test scores. Academic engagement was significantly and negatively related to shyness, and positively related to all measures of achievement. Finally, academic engagement partially mediated the relation between shyness and teacher ratings of achievement. These findings suggest that poorer teacher-rated academic performance in shy children may be partially accounted for by a lack of academic engagement in the classroom. Future studies are needed to explore why shy children are less likely to be engaged in the classroom. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Behavioral training of social skills in shy males.

31 college males who had reported themselves unable to interact with women in specific social situations were asked to record every interaction for 1 wk. Following this, a series of behavioral tests was given. When compared to a group of confident Ss, shy Ss interacted with fewer women, in fewer situations, and for less time outside of the laboratory. In laboratory test situations shy Ss rated themselves and were rated by Os as being more anxious. Pulse rate was monitored during the behavioral testing. Confident Ss had significantly less pulse rate change during the test situations. After pretesting, shy Ss were randomly assigned to either an assessment control group or an analogue treatment group, with treatment consisting of 3 sessions of behavior rehearsal, modeling, and coaching. On posttesting, Ss who had received treatment showed less physiological responsivity to the testing stimuli, reported less anxiety, and were rated as being more skillful in the test situations. Behavioral diaries revealed that following treatment Ss who received training changed more than control Ss on several measures of frequency and duration of interactions with women. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Come out and play: Shyness in childhood and the benefits of organized sports participation.

The purpose of the current study was to examine the role of organised sport participation as a moderator of the links between shyness and psychosocial maladjustment in childhood. Participants at Time 1 were 355 elementary schoolchildren (Mage=10.1 years, SD=0.6); at Time 2, 1 year later, 201 children (56%) were retained. At both time points, children completed self-report assessments of their shyness and aggression, sport participation, and psychosocial adjustment. Parents also rated children's social skills. Overall, results indicated that sport participation was positively related to indices of positive adjustment (e.g., social skills, self-esteem). In contrast, shyness was associated with social skill deficiencies and internalizing problems. However, some evidence was also found to suggest that sport participation plays a unique protective role for shy children. Shy children who participated in sport over time reported a significant decrease in anxiety. Results are discussed in terms of the role of sport as a social context to enhance shy children's peer relations. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relationship between shyness in children and constricted cognitive control as measured by the Stroop Color-Word Test.

103 4th and 5th graders, rated as either shy or nonshy by their teachers, were administered the Stroop Color-Word Test. Results support the hypothesis that shy Ss would have slower reading rates, which indicates high interference proneness (constricted control), whereas nonshy Ss would have more rapid reading rate, which indicates low interference proneness (flexible control). To determine if the procedures for identifying shy Ss also inadvertently differentiated Ss on cognitive skills (verbal ability), and not simply cognitive styles, a subsample of 32 Ss were administered the Stanford Achievement Test (SAT). Results indicate no significant difference between shy and nonshy Ss' group mean stanine scores on the language section of the SAT. Final classroom grades in reading, spelling, and English were also calculated for these 2 groups. Results indicate that the GPA of the shy group exceeded the GPA of their nonshy peers; however, differences were not significant. It appears, therefore, that the results were not confounded by differences in language ability or academic achievement and that these variables do not account for the distractibility findings. Results support the assumption that shy children are unable to maintain effective performance in the presence of interfering or distracting stimuli. (12 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Perceptions of intelligence in leaderless groups: The dynamic effects of shyness and acquaintance.

Perceptions of intelligence were investigated in 2 longitudinal studies of leaderless discussion groups (LDGs). In Study 1 (N?=?87), students completed trait-shyness questionnaires and met 7 times in groups of 4–5. After Meetings 2 and 7, participants rated all group members on state shyness and intelligence. Trait-shy participants were initially judged to be less intelligent on both self and peer ratings. At Time 2, however, trait-shy participants were no longer derogated by peers. Study 2 (N?=?103) replicated the same pattern of shy derogation while demonstrating no actual relation between IQ and trait shyness. Again, trait-shy derogation disappeared by Time 2, but state-shy derogation continued. The state shy were now the low-lQ participants, who had begun to talk less. Thus, the bias against quiet individuals, originally inappropriate, gradually became a valid cue for low intelligence. Results were traced to overlapping cues for intelligence and shyness in LDGs. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Shy-bold continuum in pumpkinseed sunfish (Lepomis gibbosus): An ecological study of a psychological trait.

The shy–bold continuum is recognized as a fundamental axis of behavioral variation in humans, but 3 major issues have not been addressed. First, the taxonomic distribution of shyness and boldness is unknown. Second, the ecological consequences of shyness and boldness have not been studied in natural populations. Third, no one has tried to predict and test patterns of shyness and boldness that might result from natural selection. The authors show that a shy–bold continuum, which influences diet, predator risk, and parasite fauna, exists in juvenile pumpkinseed sunfish. Individual differences are relatively stable in nature but seem to disappear when the fish are held in social and ecological isolation in the laboratory. Thus, phenotypic stability may not reflect innate tendencies to be shy or bold but rather environmental conditions that maintain differences between phenotypically plastic individuals. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Modifying shyness-related social behavior through symptom misattribution.

An experimental misattribution paradigm proved to be a significant intervention treatment of altering social participation among 14 dispositionally shy undergraduate women. When specific arousal symptoms previously associated with their social anxiety were misattributed to a nonpsychological source (high-frequency noise), Ss behaved as if they were not shy. Their verbal fluency and interactional assertiveness resembled that of 16 not-shy Ss given the same treatment. Moreover, their scores on these measures were significantly elevated from the low levels recorded by 15 shy controls who had been led to expect shyness-irrelevant "side effects" from their exposure to noise. A male partner (a confederate) accurately perceived whether or not Ss in the 2 control groups were shy, but he misjudged as "not shy" the shy Ss in the misattribution group. The greater enjoyment of the interaction by those in this latter group, despite high-frequency noise bombardment, was also reflected in their stronger preference for further affiliation than that shown by either comparison group. The continuously monitored heart rate data provide grounds for speculation as to the relationship of physiological arousal and behavior. However, a paradoxical placebo finding emerged when it appeared that not-shy Ss in this same misattribution condition experienced a higher level of arousal, and this anxiety-like arousal was associated with preferences for nonaffiliation. (23 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Multimodal assessment of rehearsal treatments in an assertion training program.

50 nonassertive undergraduate Ss participated in a study designed to assess the efficacy of several behavior rehearsal procedures in an assertion training program. In addition, 15 highly assertive undergraduates also participated in the pretest assessment, which included behavioral, cognitive, and physiological measures. Following pretest, the nonassertive Ss were randomly assigned to a no-treatment control group or to groups that received 2 sessions of behavior rehearsal, exaggerated rehearsal, role-reversal training, or a treatment consisting of a combination of behavior rehearsal, modeling, and coaching. Pretest results indicate that the nonassertive Ss were rated as responding less assertively in the behavioral role play test and also reported themselves as being more anxious than the assertive Ss. Posttest data indicate that the role-reversal group was the least effective treatment in modifying self-reports of assertion behavior, while the exaggerated-rehearsal and full-treatment groups demonstrated the largest gains on several measures. (15 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Double dissociation between implicit and explicit personality self-concept: The case of shy behavior.

Using the trait of shyness as an example, the authors showed that (a) it is possible to reliably assess individual differences in the implicitly measured self-concept of personality that (b) are not accessible through traditional explicit self-ratings and (c) increase significantly the prediction of spontaneous behavior in realistic social situations. A total of 139 participants were observed in a shyness-inducing laboratory situation, and they completed an Implicit Association Test (IAT) and explicit self-ratings of shyness. The IAT correlated moderately with the explicit self-ratings and uniquely predicted spontaneous (but not controlled) shy behavior, whereas the explicit ratings uniquely predicted controlled (but not spontaneous) shy behavior (double dissociation). The distinction between spontaneous and controlled behavior was validated in a 2nd study. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Increasing the interpersonal problem-solving skills of an alcoholic population.

64 male alcoholics aged 23–66 yrs admitted into an alcoholism treatment program at a VA hospital were assigned to either the control or treatment group. Control Ss participated in all standard treatment aspects of the program. Treatment Ss, however, participated in an additional 10 sessions of group therapy structured specifically to improve interpersonal problem-solving thinking skills. Comparisons conducted at the point of discharge (generally 6 wks after admission) demonstrated that treatment Ss had made significantly greater improvement on a measure of problem-solving thinking (Means–Ends Problem Solving procedure) than had controls. Further, a comparison of Ss' responses in a structured discharge interview demonstrated that treatment Ss were significantly more likely to anticipate and plan ahead for postdischarge problems than were control Ss. Data also reveal that the means–ends problem-solving procedure can reliably discriminate individuals within an adult alcoholic population who differ in their levels of social competence and in the quality of their planning for coping with postdischarge problems. Finally, follow-up at the 1-mo postdischarge point indicated that the majority of treatment Ss contacted had made practical use of the problem-solving principles that were taught in the group sessions. (16 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relocation of institutionalized elderly.

20 low- and 20 high-functioning nursing home residents (aged 37–88 yrs) were assessed prior to, immediately after, and 3 mo following relocation. Measures included the Short Portable Mental Status Questionnaire, Philadelphia Geriatric Center Morale Scale, and Face Hand Test. Half of the low-functioning Ss participated in a behavioral skills program, which consisted of graduated exposure to postmove stimuli and behavioral response training. Half of the high-functioning Ss participated in a cognitive skills program, which consisted of coping skills and problem-solving skills training. The influence of relocation proved to be less dramatic than indicated by several earlier investigations. As hypothesized, low-functioning Ss exhibited an increase in passive-withdrawn behaviors following relocation. High-functioning Ss, however, unexpectedly tended to exhibit an increase in active-outgoing behavior following relocation. Although the behavioral skills program overall led to favorable postrelocation changes, the cognitive skills program did not. (28 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Teaching personal safety skills for potential prevention of sexual abuse: A comparison of treatments.

71 children from 2 grade groups (kindergarten and 1st grade and 5th and 6th grades) participated in either (a) a filmed program ("Touch"; Illusion Theater Co. & Media Ventures, Inc., 1984); (b) a behavioral skills training (BST) program in which modeling, behavioral rehearsal, and social reinforcement were used to teach safety skills; (c) a combination of the two; or (d) a no-treatment control presentation. In comparison with the control presentation, the BST program, alone or in combination with the film, was more effective than the film alone in enhancing knowledge about sexual abuse. Posttreatment group comparisons suggested the superiority of the BST program for enhancing personal safety skills. The treatments were not differentially effective across gender or age, but older Ss performed significantly better than did younger Ss. The knowledge and skill gains made directly after treatment were maintained for the 3 mo between posttest and follow-up assessments. (23 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)