The stability of social interaction.

In a study of the stability of social interaction, 78 Ss (aged 17–29 yrs) maintained a social interaction diary, the Rochester Interaction Record (RIR), for 4 1-wk periods during their freshman year at college. Stability was operationalized in 3 ways: (1) absolutely, in terms of the similarity across the 4 periods of amount of interaction and of reactions to interactions; (2) relatively, in terms of correlations between interaction measures taken at different times; and (3) in terms of the stability of social networks, defined as the consistency across time of participants' close friends. Social interaction was found to be more stable over shorter periods of time than over longer periods, and stability increased over time. In addition, opposite-sex social interaction was less stable than same-sex interaction, and this was particularly true for interactions with close friends. The present results are interpreted by considering social environments as social systems with an emphasis on the importance of social norms as mediators of social interaction (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Youthful precursors of midlife social support

Measures of family stability, sociocultural background, and emotional ties to parents in medical students (N = 589, mean age = 22 years) predicted their social support measures, assessed 23 to 39 years later (mean age = 56 years). Father's education and family's involvement in church were positively associated with group participation (number of group memberships), whereas parental loss between the ages of 11 and 20 was negatively associated with group participation; perceived emotional closeness to parents was positively associated with social closeness (number of close contacts providing emotional and instrumental support). Thus, group participation and social closeness were influenced by distinctly different childhood factors.     

A longitudinal study of friendship development.

At 3-wk intervals during their 1st term at the university, 53 female and 31 male freshmen completed questionnaires regarding their relationships with 2 same-sex individuals whom they had just met. Results showed that dyads that successfully developed into close friendships by the end of the fall school term differed behaviorally and attitudinally from dyads that did not progress. As the friendships developed, the intimacy level of dyadic interaction accounted for an increasing percentage of the variance in ratings of friendship intensity beyond that accounted for by the sheer quantity of interaction. Ratings of relationship benefits were consistently positively correlated with friendship intensity and increased as the relationship progressed. There were no differences in ratings of relationship costs between close and nonclose friends. Dyadic behavior patterns and attitude ratings at the end of the fall school term were good predictors of friendship status 3 mo later. Motivational and situational factors were also correlated with friendship outcomes. Sex differences were noted: Females engaged in more casual affection behaviors with their close than with their nonclose friends. Males engaged in little casual affection with their friends, regardless of their degree of closeness. Results replicate the major findings of R. B. Hays (1984). (29 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Development of prosocial, individualistic, and competitive orientations: Theory and preliminary evidence.

The authors adopt an interdependence analysis of social value orientation, proposing that prosocial, individualistic, and competitive orientations are (a) partially rooted in different patterns of social interaction as experienced during the periods spanning early childhood to young adulthood and (b) further shaped by different patterns of social interaction as experienced during early adulthood, middle adulthood, and old age. Congruent with this analysis, results revealed that relative to individualists and competitors, prosocial individuals exhibited greater levels of secure attachment (Studies 1 and 2) and reported having more siblings, especially sisters (Study 3). Finally, the prevalence of prosocials increased—and the prevalence of individualists and competitors decreased—from early adulthood to middle adulthood and old age (Study 4). (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

What Type of Support Do They Need? Investigating Student Adjustment as Related to Emotional, Informational, Appraisal, and Instrumental Support.

The present study asked: What types of support (emotional, informational, appraisal, and instrumental) do students perceive from the sources of support (parents, teachers, classmates, and close friends)? and Are types of social support more related to students' social, behavioral, and academic outcomes? Gender differences in perceptions of support were also investigated. Data were collected from 263 5th-8th graders using the Child and Adolescent Social Support Scale, the Social Skills Rating System, and the Behavior Assessment System for Children. Although early adolescent boys and girls perceive similar levels of all types of support from their parents and teachers, girls perceive more support of most types from classmates and friends. Emotional and informational support were the most highly reported type of support from parents, informational support was most highly reported from teachers, and emotional and instrumental support scores were highest from classmates and close friends. Supportive behaviors from parents contributed to students' adjustment. Emotional support perceived from teachers was a significant and sole individual predictor of students' social skills and academic competence. Supportive behaviors from teachers also predicted students' school maladjustment. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Preadolescents' and adolescents' online communication and their closeness to friends.

The 1st goal of this study was to investigate how online communication is related to the closeness of existing friendships. Drawing from a sample of 794 preadolescents and adolescents, the authors found that online communication was positively related to the closeness of friendships. However, this effect held only for respondents who primarily communicated online with existing friends and not for those who mainly talked with strangers. The 2nd goal was to refine 2 opposing hypotheses, the rich-get-richer and the social compensation hypotheses. Consistent with the rich-get-richer hypothesis, socially anxious respondents communicated online less often than did nonsocially anxious respondents. However, socially anxious respondents perceived the Internet as more valuable for intimate self-disclosure than did nonsocially anxious respondents, and this perception in turn led to more online communication. This result is consistent with the social compensation hypothesis. Online communication and closeness to friends increased with age. There was a curvilinear relationship between age and perceived value of the Internet for intimate self-disclosure, such that 15-year-olds were at the epitome of online self-disclosure. Girls were closer to friends and more socially anxious than were boys. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Change and consistency in social participation during early adulthood.

Reports a longitudinal study of the social interaction patterns of college students and adults. 113 adults (aged 26–31 yrs old) who had participated in similar studies in college kept detailed records of social activity for 2 wks. Three hypotheses were supported. First, from college to adulthood, opposite-sex socializing grew, whereas same-sex, mixed-sex, and group interactions decreased. Second, intimacy increased in adulthood, whereas satisfaction did not. Contrary to theories that focus on the formation of primary intimate relationships in early adulthood, intimacy increased in all interaction categories. Sex differences in the development of intimacy were also noted. Third, correlations revealed marked consistency over time in several variables. Implications of these findings for social development during early adulthood were examined. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Skewed autonomy–relatedness in preadolescents' conceptions of their relationships with mother, father, and best friend.

Healthy adaptation within all close relationships—whether with parents, friends. or romantic partners—involves striking a balance between connectedness to and independence from the relationship partner. For some individuals, adaptation within one or more relationships is skewed, or characterized by either an excessive concern for closeness that impedes autonomy (preoccupied stance) or an excessive concern for autonomy that inhibits closeness (avoidant stance). In this study with boys and girls aged 9–14 years, children who reported a preoccupied or avoidant stance toward their mother displayed increased social impairment in the peer group over time. There were predictable associations among children's stances toward mother, father, and best friend. Children resembled their best friend in relationship stance. The study illustrates the advantages of applying common relationship constructs (e.g., autonomy-relatedness) to the study of diverse close relationships. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Depression and everyday social interaction.

Examined the relationships between depressive symptoms and everyday social interaction in a nonclinical population. Depressive symptoms were measured using the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale, and social interaction was measured using a variant of the Rochester Interaction Record. People who were classified as at risk for depression had less rewarding interactions than people who were not at risk. Depressive symptoms and interaction quantity and quality were negatively correlated for participants above the cutpoint, whereas they were uncorrelated for those below the at-risk cutpoint. Results also suggest that, compared with nondepressed people, depressed people derive more rewards from interactions with their closest opposite-sex friends, relative to the rewards they derive from interactions with other opposite-sex friends. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Emotional Support From Parents Early in Life, Aging, and Health.

The purpose of this study is to estimate the relationship between receiving emotional support from parents early in life and an individual's health in adulthood. Analysis of data from a nationally representative sample of adults ages 25-74 years suggests that a lack of parental support during childhood is associated with increased levels of depressive symptoms and chronic conditions in adulthood. These associations between early parental support and adult health persist with increasing age throughout adulthood. Personal control, self-esteem, and social relationships during adulthood account for a large portion of these long-term associations. These findings underscore the importance of adopting a life course perspective in studying the social determinants of health among adults. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Behavioral inhibition: Stability and associations with adaptation from childhood to early adulthood.

The stability of individual differences in behavioral inhibition and their association with peer relations, emotional distress, and life-course timing were examined in a longitudinal study of 205 individuals from childhood (ages 8–12) to early adulthood (ages 17–24). Behavioral inhibition was conceptualized as stranger wariness and measured through ratings made by interviewers following individual interview or testing sessions. Individual differences in behavioral inhibition were consistent from childhood to early adulthood (r?=?.57). In early adulthood, higher behavioral inhibition was associated with a less positive, less active social life for both sexes and, for men, with greater emotional distress and negative emotionality. For both genders, participants who were inhibited as children were less likely to have moved away from their family of origin by the early adulthood assessment. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Blood is thicker than water: Kinship orientation across adulthood.

The importance of kin relationships was investigated across adulthood with 5 samples (total N=1,365). Within the personal networks, the genetic relatedness with relationship partners predicted subjective closeness (mean r=.50) and social support (mean r=.13). Effects were robust in 2 samples when controlling for residential proximity and contact frequency. These intraindividual correlations showed considerable variability and were interpreted as individual expressions of nepotism. The heritability of individual nepotism was zero. Variability of nepotism was unrelated to personality traits, but substantially related to sex, and parental and partner status. The authors discuss subjective closeness as 1 proximate cue to kinship, and suggest nepotistic adaptations as powerful mechanisms in social relationships. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Season's greetings: Adults' social contacts at the holiday season.

Close friends and family play an important role in adults' lives, but little is known about the implications of infrequent or peripheral social ties that adults maintain. Eighty-seven adults, ranging in age from 24 to 87 years (M?=?51.25) provided information about their holiday card networks. Participants completed surveys for up to 25 cards that they received during one holiday season (n?=?1,405 surveys completed) and provided the holiday greetings as well, if they were willing (n?=?1,152 cards). Over half of the cards participants received were from individuals whom participants did not consider to be close friends or family members and whom they had not seen in over a year. Adults of all ages described emotional reactions to approximately one third of the cards they received. Younger adults tended to view their holiday greetings as a means of maintaining or building new social ties, whereas older adults were more likely to view their holiday greetings as a link to their personal past. Receiving a greater number of holiday cards and receiving cards from close social contacts were associated with increased feelings of social embeddedness. Similarities and differences between peripheral ties and close social ties are considered. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A longitudinal analysis of friendships and substance use: Bidirectional influence from adolescence to adulthood.

The reciprocal relation between deviant friendships and substance use was examined from early adolescence (age 13-14) to young adulthood (age 22-23). Deviance within friendships was studied using direct observations of videotaped friendship interaction and global reports of deviant interactions with friends as well as time spent with friends. Substance use was assessed through youth self-report at all time points. Multivariate modeling revealed that substance use in young adulthood is a joint outcome of friendship influence and selection processes. In addition, substance use appears to influence the selection of friends in late adolescence. Findings suggest that effective preventions should target peer ecologies conducive to substance use and that treatment should address both the interpersonal underpinnings and addiction processes intrinsic to chronic use, dependence, and abuse. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Marital closeness, functional disability, and adjustment in late life.

Socioemotional selectivity theory (SST) posits that emotionally close relationships are increasingly valued as people perceive constraints on time. Based on SST, this study of 1,532 older married persons hypothesized that emotional dimensions of marriage would more strongly predict adjustment at higher levels of functional disability. High levels of marital closeness were negatively associated with depression and anxiety and positively associated with self-esteem. Consistent with predictions derived from SST, marital closeness moderated the negative psychological effects of high levels of functional disability on depression, anxiety, and self-esteem. Results are discussed in the context of SST and traditional stress-buffering models of social support. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Implicit theories of relationship: An intergenerational study.

40 college students and 40 senior citizens 2 generations apart in age estimated the probabilities of each of 30 behaviors for each of 14 pair relationships varying in their closeness (casual aquaintances, good friends, close relationship, married partners) and in their sex composition. The younger respondents rated the pair relationships of 22-yr-olds today, while the older ones rated those of 22-yr-old pairs of 50 yrs ago. The behavior items referred to a variety of social behaviors pertaining to joint activity, self-disclosure, other-enhancement, other-disparagement, physical contact, and norm regulation. Closeness and sex composition of the relationships as well as content of the behaviors strongly affected the probability estimates. The raters' generation also exerted strong effects; today's pairs, especially good or very close heterosexual friends, were believed to be much more likely to express positive and negative feelings and to have physical contact. (29 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The oldest old, ADL, social network, and loneliness

This study examined the influence of activities of daily living (ADL) and frequency of social contacts on the loneliness and social relationships in a sample of very elderly individuals. Associations between functional ability, social contacts, and emotional loneliness and social loneliness were also assessed. The sample was composed of 221 participants, age 80 to 105 years, residing in the greater Bergen area in Norway. Results demonstrated that dependence on the environment in ADL is related to low levels of emotional loneliness, whereas only dependence in activities of toileting and transferring corresponded with low levels of social loneliness. High frequency of social contacts with family, friends, or neighbors was negatively related to both emotional and social loneliness. Results show that frequency of such contacts appeared to buffer the effect of continence on emotional loneliness and the effect of toileting and transferring on social loneliness.     

Whether close or far: Social distance effects on perceived balance in friendship networks.

Under what circumstances are individuals' perceptions of friendship relations shaped by the balance schema? Using data from 4 organizations varying in size from 21 to 33 members, the authors investigated how ego's perception of the social distance from ego to alter affected the proportion of alter's friendships perceived by ego as balanced. Balance involves both (a) reciprocated friendships between 2 people, and (b) transitive triplets, in which 2 friends of a person are themselves friends. Graphical and regression analyses supported a composite curvilinear model that combined the predictions of emotional tension and cognitive miser perspectives: People tended to perceive relations close to and distant from themselves as more balanced than relations of intermediate distance. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Five domains of interpersonal competence in peer relationships.

In three studies we investigated the utility of distinguishing among different domains of interpersonal competence in college students' peer relationships. In Study 1 we developed a questionnaire to assess five dimensions of competence: initiating relationships, self-disclosure, asserting displeasure with others' actions, providing emotional support, and managing interpersonal conflicts. Initial validation evidence was gathered. We found that self-perceptions of competence varied as a function of sex of subject, sex of interaction partner, and competence domain. In Study 2 we found moderate levels of agreement between ratings of competence by subjects and their roommates. Interpersonal competence scores were also related in predictable ways to subject and roommate reports of masculinity and femininity, social self-esteem, loneliness, and social desirability. In Study 3 we obtained ratings of subjects' competence from their close friends and new acquaintances. Relationship satisfaction among new acquaintances was predicted best by initiation competence, whereas satisfaction in friendships was most strongly related to emotional support competence. The findings provide strong evidence of the usefulness of distinguishing among domains of interpersonal competence. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Developing close relationships: Changing patterns of interaction between pair members and social networks.

To study the connections binding close relationships and networks of kin and friends, measures of social participation were developed from daily reports of social activity provided by 89 undergraduates involved in dating relationships. These measures included size of the network and the frequency and length of time spent interacting with network members. As hypothesized, all network measures were inversely related to the stage of courtship under scrutiny. Ss in the later stages of courtship, relative to those in the early stages of courtship, interacted with fewer people, less often, and for shorter periods. However, based on longitudinal analyses, frequency and duration were more robust indicators than size of changes in social participation with network members concurrent with an advancing or deteriorating close relationship. Findings are discussed in light of the advantages of longitudinal over cross-sectional designs. (39 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)