Contextual amplification of pubertal transition effects on deviant peer affiliation and externalizing behavior among African American children.

The effects of the pubertal transition on behavior problems and its interaction with family and neighborhood circumstances were examined with a sample of 867 African American children 10-12 years of age. Pubertal development status, pubertal timing, and primary caregivers' parenting behaviors were significantly related to affiliation with deviant peers and externalizing behaviors. Externalizing behavior among early-maturing children was associated positively with primary caregivers' use of harsh-inconsistent discipline and negatively with nurturant-involved parenting practices. Disadvantaged neighborhood conditions were significantly associated with deviant peer affiliation. The effect of pubertal transition varied according to family and neighborhood conditions: Early-maturing children living in disadvantaged neighborhoods were significantly more likely to affiliate with deviant peers. Early-maturing children with harsh and inconsistent parents were significantly more likely to have externalizing problems. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Nonshared environmental mediation of the association between deviant peer affiliation and adolescent externalizing behaviors over time: Results from a cross-lagged monozygotic twin differences design.

It has been argued that peers are the most important agent of adolescent socialization and, more specifically, that this socialization process occurs at the child-specific (or nonshared environmental) level (J. R. Harris, 1998; R. Plomin & Asbury, 2005). The authors sought to empirically evaluate this nonshared environmental peer influence hypothesis by examining the association between externalizing behaviors and deviant peer affiliation in a sample of 454 pairs of monozygotic (genetically identical) twins, assessed at ages 14 and 17, within a cross-lagged twin differences design. Results argued against a causal nonshared environmental influence of peer affiliation on the development of externalizing behaviors and in favor of nonshared environmental “selection.” In particular, the twin with more externalizing behaviors at age 14 reported increased deviant peer affiliation relative to his or her co-twin 3 years later, regardless of his or her genetic predispositions toward externalizing behavior. Such findings suggest that adolescents with higher levels of externalizing behaviors select or shape (either intentionally or inadvertently) subsequent environmental experiences to involve increased affiliation with deviant peers. Implications are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Childhood predictors of adolescent substance use in a longitudinal study of children with ADHD.

Children diagnosed with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD; n=142) were prospectively monitored into adolescence (13-18 years old) to evaluate their risk for elevated substance use relative to same-aged adolescents without ADHD (n=100). Probands reported higher levels of alcohol, tobacco, and illicit drug use than did controls. Group differences were apparent for alcohol symptom scores but not for alcohol or marijuana disorder diagnoses. Within probands, severity of childhood inattention symptoms predicted multiple substance use outcomes; childhood oppositional defiant disorder/conduct disorder (ODD/CD) symptoms predicted illicit drug use and CD symptoms. Persistence of ADHD and adolescent CD were each associated with elevated substance use behaviors relative to controls. Further study of the mediating mechanisms that explain risk for early substance use and abuse in children with ADHD is warranted. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Rate and predictors of divorce among parents of youths with ADHD.

Numerous studies have asserted the prevalence of marital conflict among families of children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), but evidence is surprisingly less convincing regarding whether parents of youths with ADHD are more at risk for divorce than are parents of children without ADHD. Using survival analyses, the authors compared the rate of marital dissolution between parents of adolescents and young adults with and without ADHD. Results indicated that parents of youths diagnosed with ADHD in childhood (n = 282) were more likely to divorce and had a shorter latency to divorce compared with parents of children without ADHD (n = 206). Among a subset of those families of youths with ADHD, prospective analyses indicated that maternal and paternal education level; paternal antisocial behavior; and child age, race/ethnicity, and oppositional-defiant/conduct problems each uniquely predicted the timing of divorce between parents of youths with ADHD. These data underscore how parent and child variables likely interact to exacerbate marital discord and, ultimately, dissolution among families of children diagnosed with ADHD. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder and substance abuse: relationships and implications for treatment

Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and substance-use disorders are related to each other in a variety of ways. Although within the child-psychiatry literature earlier investigations were inconsistent regarding such a link, recent prospective studies that followed hyperactive children and normal controls into adulthood have found that hyperactive adults with a history of ADHD are more likely than controls to have substance-use disorders. The substance-abuse literature is less consistent regarding the potential association between ADHD and substance abuse. However, recent studies suggest that persons with a substance-use disorder, and particularly those with a cocaine-use disorder, may be more likely than the general population to have a childhood history of ADHD. Some of the inconsistency regarding this association is due to differences in diagnostic criteria, type of assessments used, and reliability of information obtained. Each of the potential relationships that may exist between ADHD and substance abuse has treatment implications for the clinician. Pharmacological as well as nonpharmacological approaches deserve further investigation. Because pharmacotherapy is a central component in the treatment of childhood ADHD, clinicians designing a strategy to treat both a substance-use disorder and ADHD need to consider pharmacological interventions. At present, the literature on pharmacological treatment for childhood ADHD is extensive and that for adult ADHD is growing; information regarding the treatment of cocaine abuse and concomitant ADHD symptoms remains limited.     

Pubertal maturation and early substance use risks among African American children.

Using 2 waves of longitudinal data collected from approximately 870 African American adolescents, this study examined (a) changes in early risk factors for substance use during transition to early adolescence, including perceived prototypes of substance-using peers, willingness and intention to use substances, number of substance-using peers, and youths' own actual substance use; (b) the relationship between pubertal timing and these substance use risks; and (c) the interaction between pubertal timing and peer substance use in predicting the risks. Results showed that, first, risks for substance use increased, particularly among girls, during the transition to early adolescence. Children's prototypic images of substance users became increasingly favorable during this transitional period; a greater number of them were willing and intended to use substances during the transition to early adolescence; and an increased number of early adolescents and their friends began to use substances. Second, these changes were significantly more likely to occur among early maturing girls. Third, early physical maturation interacted with peer substance use to affect these changes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Is comorbidity with ADHD a marker for juvenile-onset mania?

OBJECTIVE: To compare the characteristics and correlates of mania in referred adolescents and to determine whether attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a marker of very early onset mania. METHOD: From 637 consecutive admissions, 68 children (< or = 12 years) and 42 adolescents (> 13 years) who satisfied criteria for mania were recruited. These were compared with the 527 nonmanic referrals and 100 normal controls. RESULTS: With the exception of comorbidity with ADHD, there were more similarities than differences between the children and adolescents with mania in course and correlates. There was an inverse relationship between the rates of comorbid ADHD and age of onset of mania: higher in manic children intermediate in adolescents with childhood-onset mania, and lower in adolescents with adolescent-onset mania. CONCLUSIONS: ADHD is more common in childhood-onset compared with adolescent-onset cases of bipolar disorder, suggesting that in some cases, ADHD may signal a very early onset of bipolar disorder. Clinical similarities between the child- and adolescent-onset cases provide evidence for the clinical validity of childhood-onset mania.     

Ecological predictors of substance use in middle school students.

The current study examined important predictors of substance use during early adolescence. The authors hypothesized that adolescents' relationships with key adults (i.e., teachers and parents) influence their choices to use substances indirectly through links with their decisions regarding peer groups. A total of 461 middle school students from an affluent suburban community completed self-report measures of authoritative parenting, perceived social support from teachers, affiliation with rule-breaking and substance-using peers, and frequency of alcohol, cigarette, and drug use. Results of structural equation modeling supported the hypothesized model. Authoritative parenting and teacher support accounted for 31% of the variance in affiliation with deviant peers which, in turn, accounted for 27% of the variance in adolescent substance use; direct paths from parenting and teacher support to substance use were not indicated. Implications for school psychologists' involvement in substance use prevention and intervention are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Familial subtypes of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: a 4-year follow-up study of children from antisocial-ADHD families

ADHD is a familial disorder with high rates of comorbidity with conduct disorder in childhood and antisocial personality and substance use disorders in adulthood. A growing literature suggests that ADHD with antisocial comorbidity may be nosologically distinct from other forms of ADHD. Previously, we proposed a family-based stratification that defined Antisocial families as those with either conduct disorder or antisocial personality disorder in the probands or relatives. To provide predictive validity for that stratification, we assessed psychopathology in these families 4 years after their initial assessment. Results show that the probands and siblings from Antisocial families had higher rates of psychopathology during the 4-year follow-up period compared with siblings from Non-antisocial and control families. They also had more deviant ratings on the Child Behavior Checklist (especially for anxious/depressed, delinquent, and aggressive behavior). We found fewer group differences in the academic, psychosocial, and intellectual correlates of ADHD. These results confirm and extend previous work indicating that Antisocial ADHD may be a nosologically and clinically meaningful subform of ADHD.     

How are social support effects mediated? A test with parental support and adolescent substance use.

This research tested how the effect of parental emotional and instrumental support on substance (tobacco, alcohol, and marijuana) use in adolescents is mediated. Data were from a sample of 1,702 adolescents surveyed between the 7th and 9th grades. Parental support was inversely related to substance use, and stress-buffering interactions were found at all assessment points. Structural modeling analyses indicated the effect of support was mediated through more behavioral coping and academic competence and less tolerance for deviance and behavioral undercontrol; these mediators were related to negative life events and deviant peer affiliations. Multiple-group analyses suggested buffering effects occurred because high support reduced the effect of risk factors and increased the effect of protective factors. Implications for the theory of social support effects and resilience mechanisms are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Examining the effects of academic beliefs and behaviors on changes in substance use among urban adolescents.

This study examines substance use between 10th and l2th grades in a predominantly African American sample of 785 adolescents from an urban environment. Psychological distress, academic factors, and perceptions of parents and peers are used to explain l0th-grade substance use and changes in use using hierarchical linear modeling. Results indicate that low achievement and motivation, high truancy, and perceptions of peer substance use are associated with higher 10th-grade substance use. Growth curve analyses reveal that adolescents who perceive negative school attitudes among peers are more likely to increase their cigarette and marijuana use. Among high-achieving students, low motivation is a risk factor for increased cigarette use. Implications focused on enhancing motivation, reducing truancy, and understanding adolescents' perceptions of their peers. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Temperament and novelty seeking in adolescent substance use: convergence of dimensions of temperament with constructs from Cloninger's theory

This study investigated the convergence of temperament dimensions with constructs from C. R. Cloninger's (1987a) theory using data from a sample of 949 adolescents (M age = 13.6 years). Substantial convergence was found, and both types of constructs were related in predicted ways to self-regulation variables and adolescent substance use. Structural modeling procedures tested a mediational model for substance use; results showed mediation through self-control, academic competence, negative life events, and deviant peer affiliations. Interactions indicated that substance use could be predicted from a balance of systems for good control and poor control. Poor self-control was present for dimensions implicated in both externalizing and internalizing disorders. Results are discussed with reference to self-regulation models of substance use and the comorbidity of substance abuse and mental disorder.     

The relationship of family structure to adolescent drug use, peer affiliation, and perception of peer acceptance of drug use

This study examined the relationship of family structure to adolescent gateway drug use and peer-related factors. The sample consisted of 2,121 randomly selected students in grades 8, 10, and 12 from seventeen school districts in northeastern Ohio. Students were administered a self-report instrument containing items measuring drug use and psychosocial variables. For purposes of analysis, the dependent variables included frequency of use of five gateway drugs, degree of affiliation with drug-using peers, and perceptions of peer acceptance of drug use. Comparison groups included single-parent (both mother- and father-headed), stepparent, and intact families. Analyses were conducted separately by grade level. Significant differences were found between groups on the drug-use variables at grades 8 and 10, with adolescents from intact families reporting less frequent drug use, fewer drug-using friends, and perceptions of more peer disapproval of drug use. Interestingly, there were several statistically significant group differences on perceptions of peer acceptance of drug use and the number of drug-using friends at the 8th-grade level. The largest differences were found between the single-parent (father-headed) and intact groups, with adolescents from father-headed families showing more frequent beer and liquor consumption at the 10th-grade level.     

Cloninger's constructs related to substance use level and problems in late adolescence: A mediational model based on self-control and coping motives.

Predictions concerning mediating processes for the effects of C. R. Cloninger's (see record 1988-17186-001) constructs were tested; criterion variables were substance use level and substance use problems. Participants were 1,225 adolescents (M age: 15.5 years). Structural modeling indicated indirect effects for novelty seeking, harm avoidance, and task reward dependence, mediated through self-control; harm avoidance also had an inverse direct path to substance use level, and social reward dependence had a positive direct path to coping motives for substance use. Good self-control had inverse paths to life events and deviant peer affiliations; poor self-control had positive paths to life events and coping motives; and risk taking had positive paths to coping motives and peer affiliations. Coping motives had a path to level and a direct path to problems; peer affiliations had a path only to substance use level. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and conduct disorder symptomatology in adolescents with alcohol use disorder.

This study tested the hypothesis that attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and conduct disorder (CD) comorbidity is associated with substance use and deviance severity in 395 adolescents with alcohol use disorder. Thirty percent of the adolescents had high ADHD symptom counts, and 73% had 3 or more CD symptoms. ADHD-CD was associated with nonalcohol substance use disorder, drinking levels, and CD severity, but in general substance use was not uniquely elevated or problematic among the comorbid cases. In general, CD and CD severity were more important. The findings did not differ between boys and girls, revealing that in a treatment sample of adolescents, ADHD-CD comorbidity may need to be assessed and treated, but it is not broadly indicative of severity. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Interactive effects of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and conduct disorder on early adolescent substance use.

This study examined the interactive effects of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and conduct disorder (CD) diagnosis on early adolescent substance use in a cross-sectional study of 202 middle school students. ADHD diagnosis alone did not suggest increased risk for substance use, but more adolescents with both ADHD and CD reported use of tobacco, alcohol, marijuana, and other drugs than did adolescents with either disorder alone. Dimensionally scored impulsivity-hyperactivity symptoms, not symptoms of inattention, appeared to account for the association with ADHD. Results illustrate the need to continue examination of the role of ADHD in the development of substance use and later abuse, especially as it relates to the onset of conduct problems in adolescence that mark liability for early onset substance abuse. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Callous-Unemotional Traits and Delinquent Peer Affiliation.

Association with a deviant peer group is a robust correlate of juvenile antisocial behavior. The current study focused on whether this association differed for antisocial youth with and without callous-unemotional (CU) traits and whether potential mediators of this association differed for the 2 groups. Deviant peer group association was examined in a community sample (N = 98) of high-risk youth. The sample was assessed at 4 yearly intervals. Across all assessment points, children with conduct problems and CU traits showed the highest level of affiliation with deviant peers. At the first 2 assessment points, this effect was largely mediated by dysfunctional parenting and problems in the child's social relationships. In contrast, the mediational role of these variables was much weaker at the last 2 assessment points. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Affiliation with antisocial peers, susceptibility to peer influence, and antisocial behavior during the transition to adulthood.

Developmental theories suggest that affiliation with deviant peers and susceptibility to peer influence are important contributors to adolescent delinquency, but it is unclear how these variables impact antisocial behavior during the transition to adulthood, a period when most delinquent individuals decline in antisocial behavior. Using data from a longitudinal study of 1,354 antisocial youth, the present study examined how individual variation in exposure to deviant peers and resistance to peer influence affect antisocial behavior from middle adolescence into young adulthood (ages 14 to 22 years). Whereas we find evidence that antisocial individuals choose to affiliate with deviant peers, and that affiliating with deviant peers is associated with an individual’s own delinquency, these complementary processes of selection and socialization operate in different developmental periods. In middle adolescence, both selection and socialization serve to make peers similar in antisocial behavior, but from ages 16 to 20 years, only socialization appears to be important. After age 20, the impact of peers on antisocial behavior disappears as individuals become increasingly resistant to peer influence, suggesting that the process of desistance from antisocial behavior may be tied to normative changes in peer relations that occur as individuals mature socially and emotionally. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Self-control, symptomatology, and substance use precursors: Test of a theoretical model in a community sample of 9-year-old children.

The authors tested a theoretical model of how self-control constructs are related to psychological symptomatology and variables that predispose to involvement versus noninvolvement in substance use: willingness to use, affiliation with peers who use, and efficacy for resisting use. Data were obtained from a sample of 332 children (mean age = 9.3 years) who were interviewed in households. Structural equation modeling showed that good self-control was related to more positive well-being and less externalizing symptomatology, whereas poor self-control was related to more externalizing and to more internalizing symptomatology. Externalizing had paths to willingness and peer use, well-being had inverse paths to these variables, and poor self-control had a direct effect to lower resistance efficacy. Multiple-group analyses indicated gender differences in paths from symptomatology to predisposing factors. Implications for understanding vulnerability to substance use are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Recent-onset ecstasy use: Association with deviant behaviors and psychiatric comorbidity.

Background: Despite increases in ecstasy (MDMA) use in the United States, little is known about characteristics linked with recent-onset ecstasy use, especially psychiatric symptoms and deviant behaviors. Aims: To test whether individuals with high levels of other drug use are more likely to be recent-onset ecstasy users; to test whether psychiatric symptoms in adults are associated with recent-onset ecstasy use; to explore the association between recent-onset ecstasy use and concomitant deviant behaviors in adolescents and adults. Methods: Data from the 2001 National Survey on Drug Use and Health. Findings: Recent-onset ecstasy use was significantly more likely to occur among adolescents and adults (18-34 years old) who engaged in deviant behaviors during the past year as compared with those who did not engage in deviant behaviors during the past year. Higher levels of deviancy indicated a higher likelihood of being a recent-onset ecstasy user, and associations were strongest with nonviolent deviant behaviors such as selling illegal drugs and stealing. Associations between deviant behaviors and recent-onset ecstasy use were similar in strength to associations between deviant behaviors and recent-onset cocaine and marijuana use, respectively. Adults who had past-year psychiatric symptoms (both depressive and panic symptoms) were twice as likely to be recent-onset ecstasy users as compared with those without past-year psychiatric symptoms. Greater levels of drug involvement increased the odds of being a recent-onset ecstasy user. Conclusion: Recent-onset ecstasy use seems to be associated with a range of other behavioral problems and may reflect one aspect of a larger problem behavior syndrome. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)