Religion and spirituality.

We define religion and spirituality and discuss five scenarios in which they will probably emerge in psychotherapy. We review empirical research on religion and spirituality as they pertain to psychotherapy outcomes and relationships. Most research has been unsophisticated relative to the general status of psychotherapy research. Nonetheless, therapists are urged to assess for religion. and spirituality and, if possible, intervene in religiously and spiritually sensitive ways. Nine empirical studies of religiously accommodative Christian (n = 6) and Muslim (n = 3) psychotherapy have provided limited support for its efficacy, especially with depressed clients. Highly religious clients appear to desire therapy that respects (if not integrates) their religion, but research is unclear about the degree to which they can benefit from secular therapies, especially when they request religious therapy. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Advances in the conceptualization and measurement of religion and spirituality: Implications for physical and mental health research.

Empirical studies have identified significant links between religion and spirituality and health. The reasons for these associations, however, are unclear. Typically, religion and spirituality have been measured by global indices (e.g., frequency of church attendance, self-rated religiousness and spirituality) that do not specify how or why religion and spirituality affect health. The authors highlight recent advances in the delineation of religion and spirituality concepts and measures theoretically and functionally connected to health. They also point to areas for growth in religion and spirituality conceptualization and measurement. Through measures of religion and spirituality more conceptually related to physical and mental health (e.g., closeness to God, religious orientation and motivation, religious support, religious struggle), psychologists are discovering more about the distinctive contributions of religiousness and spirituality to health and well-being. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Religion and spirituality in rehabilitation outcomes among individuals with traumatic brain injury.

Objective: The long-term consequences of traumatic brain injury affect millions of Americans, many of whom report using religion and spirituality to cope. Little research, however, has investigated how various elements of the religious and spiritual belief systems affect rehabilitation outcomes. The present study sought to assess the use of specifically defined elements of religion and spirituality as psychosocial resources in a sample of traumatically brain injured adults. Participants: The sample included 88 adults with brain injury from 1 to 20 years post injury and their knowledgeable significant others (SOs). The majority of the participants with brain injury were male (76%), African American (75%) and Christian (76%). Measures: Participants subjectively reported on their religious/spiritual beliefs and psychosocial resources as well as their current physical and psychological status. Significant others reported objective rehabilitation outcomes. Analyses: Hierarchical multiple regression analyses were used to determine the proportion of variance in outcomes accounted for by demographic, injury related, psychosocial and religious/spiritual variables. Results: The results indicate that religious well-being (a sense of connection to a higher power) was a unique predictor for life satisfaction, distress and functional ability whereas public religious practice and existential well-being were not. Conclusions: The findings of this project indicate that specific facets of religious and spiritual belief systems do play direct and unique roles in predicting rehabilitation outcomes whereas religious activity does not. Notably, a self-reported individual connection to a higher power was an extremely robust predictor of both subjective and objective outcome. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Parenting and the socialization of religiousness and spirituality.

This study examined parenting style dimensions as moderators of relations between family religiousness and individual religiousness and spirituality. Participants were 122 emerging adults ages 17–31 (M = 20.90, SD = 2.75). Cross-sectional data were obtained through an online survey. Participants rated the frequency with which they engaged in various religious activities with their families when they were younger, the frequency with which they personally do those behaviors currently, their current spirituality, and the parenting styles used by their parents when they were younger. Family religiousness positively predicted individual religiousness and spirituality. Rejection and autonomy-support moderated the association between family religiousness and individual religiousness, while warmth, rejection, structure, chaos, and autonomy-support moderated the relationship between family religiousness and individual spirituality. Thus, religious beliefs and practices, at whatever level, may be more readily appropriated by the next generation in families characterized by authoritative parenting. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Measuring spirituality and spiritual emptiness: Toward ecumenicity and transcultural applicability.

The authors review Eastern and Western conceptions of spirituality, explicate the spirituality construct and differentiate it from religiosity, propose strategies for achieving ecumenicity and transcultural applicability, and suggest innovative techniques for measuring spirituality and spiritual emptiness. The essential attributes of ecumenical spirituality are that it (a) is concerned with existential or transcendent questions; (b) belongs to the domain of cardinal values underlying all aspects of life; and (c) is self-reflective, and hence metacognitive, in nature. The paths to spirituality are many and are grounded in different values and beliefs across philosophical-religious traditions. However, commonalities may be extracted at a high level of abstraction and with maximal inclusiveness. Thus, the goal of ecumenicity, and hence transcultural applicability, is attainable. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A Review of the Role of Religion and Spirituality in Chronic Pain Populations.

Objective: To review the current literature on the relation between religiosity-spirituality and health outcomes in chronic pain populations, to discuss the clinical implications of this research, and to provide suggestions for future studies. Conclusions: Additional religion-spirituality research and clinical intervention with chronic pain populations is warranted for several reasons. First, many persons with chronic pain use religious and spiritual beliefs and activities to cope with pain. Second, a relation between religion-spirituality and various health outcomes has been documented. Third, there is a lack of research on potential mediators of the relation between religion-spirituality and health in chronic pain populations. Fourth, well-designed spiritual or religious behavioral interventions for patients with chronic pain are sparse. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Changes in personal religion/spirituality during and after childhood abuse: A review and synthesis.

Psychologists have begun to consider the potential role of traumatic experiences on the victim’s spirituality and religiousness as well as the role personal religious and spiritual faith might have in recovery from abuse. In this review, the authors were particularly interested in these issues as they pertain to childhood abuse. The authors identified 34 studies of child abuse as they relate to spirituality and religiosity that included information on a total of 19, 090 participants. The studies were classified according to both the form of abuse and the form of religiousness or spirituality that were examined. The majority of studies indicated either some decline in religiousness or spirituality (N = 14) or a combination of both growth and decline (N = 12). Seven studies gave preliminary indications that religiousness/spirituality can moderate the development of posttraumatic symptoms or symptoms associated with other Axis I disorders. The authors discuss implications for both therapy and future research. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Galton on Spirituality, Religion, and Health.

Comments on the four articles in the special section on spirituality, religion, and health in the January 2003 issue of American Psychologist (2003, Vol 58, 24-74). These articles acknowledged the long tradition of research in this area but cited no work prior to William James (1902) and Durkheim (1897/1951). This is a pity, as Francis Galton, the father of differential psychology, published pioneering works 30 years earlier in his book Hereditary Genius (1869) and in a paper titled "Statistical Inquiries Into the Efficacy of Prayer" (1872). (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Religiosity and spirituality among psychologists: A survey of clinician members of the American Psychological Association.

Has the disparity in religiosity between clinicians and the general public decreased in recent years? Clinician members of the American Psychological Association (APA) were surveyed regarding their religion and spirituality. The survey was sent to 489 randomly selected members of APA, of whom 258 (53%) replied. Items were drawn from prior surveys to allow this APA sample to be compared with the general U.S. population and with an earlier survey of psychotherapists by A. E. Bergin and J. P. Jensen (see record 1990-18246-001). Although no less religious than A. E. Bergin and J. P. Jensen's (1990) sample, psychologists remained far less religious than the clients they serve. The vast majority, however, regarded religion as beneficial (82%) rather than harmful (7%) to mental health. Implications for clinical practice and training are considered. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Religiosity/spirituality and health: A critical review of the evidence for biological pathways.

The authors review evidence regarding the biological processes that may link religiosity/spirituality to health. A growing body of observational evidence supports the hypothesis that links religiosity/spirituality to physiological processes. Although much of the earliest evidence came from cross-sectional studies with questionable generalizability and potential confounding, more recent research, with more representative samples and multivariate analysis, provides stronger evidence linking Judeo-Christian religious practices to blood pressure and immune function. The strongest evidence comes from randomized interventional trials reporting the beneficial physiological impact of meditation (primarily transcendental meditation). Overall, available evidence is generally consistent with the hypothesis that religiosity/spirituality is linked to health related physiological processes--including cardiovascular, neuroendocrine, and immune function--although more solid evidence is needed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Parent and peer relationships and relational spirituality in adolescents and young adults.

Research showing the protective qualities of Relational Spirituality, the experience of an ongoing dynamic personal relationship with G-d, against psychopathology in adolescents prompted the current investigation of its developmental correlates. Relational Spirituality in adolescence has been shown to have an unfolding heritable contribution and to be intertwined with a process of spiritual individuation, to which the current study adds the contribution of parents and peers to the developmental process. Participants were 615 adolescents and young adults representing a diverse range of ethnicities and religious affiliations. To measure parenting and friend variables, the Parental Bonding Instrument (PBI), Parental Spiritual Support Scale, and Friends Spiritual Support Scale were utilized. Relational Spirituality was measured using items from several subscales of the Brief Multidimensional Measure of Religiousness/Spirituality to obtain a composite score. Findings of multivariate regression analyses indicated that Maternal Spiritual Support, Paternal Care, and Friends Spiritual Support were significantly positively associated with Relational Spirituality, with Maternal Spiritual Support influencing the selection of peers who offer Friends Spiritual Support. These results underscore the importance of parents and peers in facilitating the development of Relational Spirituality, particularly through maternal openness to discussion about spirituality/religiosity and through paternal affection. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Religion, Spirituality, and Health: A Topic Not So New.

Comments on (1) the article by W. R. Miller and C. E. Thoresen (see record 2003-02034-003), which states that the area of spirituality, religion and health is seen as an emerging field; and (2) the article by P. C. Hill and K. I. Pargament (see record 2003-02034-006), which states that conceptualization and measurement of religion as spirituality neglect to consider any of the definitional work that has been completed and reported at the summit conferences of the Association for Spiritual, Ethical, and Religious Values in Counseling. Richmond asserts that the authors limited their search for resource material. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Pathways to posttraumatic growth: The contributions of forgiveness and importance of religion and spirituality.

Posttraumatic growth may follow the experience of being significantly hurt by another person. This study examines the roles of forgiveness and the importance of religion and spirituality in posttraumatic growth after a significant interpersonal transgression among a diverse sample of 146 adults. Results demonstrated that transgression severity was negatively related to forgiveness: the more distressing the event, the more revenge and avoidance were endorsed in response to the offender. Regression analyses revealed that benevolence toward the offender predicted growth in the area of relating to others. The positive relationship between forgiveness and posttraumatic growth was mediated by importance of religion and spirituality; however, the relationship between unforgiveness and lack of growth was not similarly mediated. Results suggest that religious and spiritual variables influence how individuals respond to significant interpersonal transgressions through positive processes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Ethical challenges and opportunities at the edge: Incorporating spirituality and religion into psychotherapy.

Incorporating spirituality and religion into psychotherapy has been controversial, but recent contributions have argued the importance and provided foundations for doing so. Discussions of ethical challenges in this process are emerging, and this contribution discusses several preliminary issues, relying on the Resolution on Religious, Religion-Based and/or Religion-Derived Prejudice adopted by the American Psychological Association in 2007, as guidance when used with the American Psychological Association’s (2002) Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct. Specifically, this discussion of preliminary challenges addresses competence, bias, maintaining traditions and standards of psychology, and integrity in labeling services for reimbursement. Commentators deepen the discussion, addressing what constitutes minimal competence in this area; effective and truly mutual collaboration with clergy; the high level of ethical complexity and “inherent messiness” of this domain of psychological practice; and the particular challenges of demarcating the boundaries of these domains for regulatory and billing purposes. This discussion offers decidedly preliminary ideas on managing the interface of these domains. Further development is needed before this nascent area approximates precise guidelines or standards. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Psychology, spirituality, and end-of-life care: An ethical integration?

With an increased focus on multidisciplinary care, psychologists are being called to work within palliative care teams. Spirituality is often a salient issue for palliative individuals, and has significant implications with respect to psychological functioning. This paper discusses the incorporation of spirituality/religion into psychological end of life care, with a focus on the biopsychosocial-spiritual model of health, and the consideration of spirituality/religion as an aspect of cultural diversity. Discussion also surrounds the ethical integration of spirituality/religion into psychological assessment and treatment, as well as recommendations for clinical training. An overall theme of this article is that attending to the spiritual needs of palliative individuals is important to fulfill one's ethical responsibilities as a psychologist. Thus, seeking ways to ethically integrate these concepts into psychology training and practice remains an essential endeavour. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The current status of measures of spirituality: A critical review of scale development.

Despite spirituality's growing popularity within psychology, measurement of the construct remains challenging. The difficulty largely arises from disagreement regarding the nature of spirituality per se and its relationship to religiousness. The present paper provides a critical review of scale development practices for 24 measures of spirituality including information pertaining to conceptualization, item generation and revision practices, format, sample characteristics, and psychometric properties. Findings raise theological and methodological concerns, which inform several recommendations for future development and validation of spirituality measures. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Religion and health.

Comments on the article by M. E. McCullough, et al. (see record 2000-03769-001) which concluded that religious involvement was significantly associated with lower mortality, indicating that people high in religious involvement were more likely to be alive at follow-up than people lower in religious involvement. The authors argue that the relationship between religious involvement and mortality is weak or nonexistent. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Unaddressed Problems in the Study of Spirituality and Health.

Comments on the four articles in the special section on spirituality, religion, and health in the January 2003 issue of American Psychologist (2003, Vol 58, 24-74). These articles did not address, or did not address adequately, three issues that are fundamental to the question of studying religion and mental health. First, the question of the control groups for the research studies that were cited was hardly mentioned. Second, this line of research is focused heavily on the Judeo-Christian majority. Perhaps the biggest problem with this line of research is that the writers did not seem to provide safeguards that would preclude the general public and the press from taking their conclusions out of context. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Linking perceived unfairness to physical health: The perceived unfairness model.

Can perceiving unfairness influence physical health? To address this question the authors propose the Perceived Unfairness Model, synthesized from psychological and epidemiological research. The model starts from the premise that perceiving unfairness, directed at beings to which the perceiver is emotionally attached, activates a cascade of psychological and physical processes. This cascade may be experienced by low or high status group members, and by the target or observer of the perceived unfairness. With repeated episodes, the effects of perceiving unfairness may accumulate and compromise physical health. Whether perceiving unfairness is potentially toxic or benign is a function of two key components of social location: identity relevance and helplessness to redress the unfairness. The authors conclude by discussing directions for developing the model. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Spirituality, Health, and the Discipline of Psychology.

Replies to comments by D. J. McCormick (see record 2004-10043-013), L. J. Richmond (see record 2004-10043-014), C. A. Rayburn (see record 2004-10043-015), and F. J. Kier and D. S. Davenport (see record 2004-10043-016) on the special section on spirituality, religion, and health in the January 2003 issue of American Psychologist (2003, Vol 58, 24-74). Each of the comments is addressed in turn. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)