L'effet Flynn et la déficience intellectuelle.

In 1984, Flynn pointed out a 3 to 5 point increase per decade in major IQ tests in the United States. To respect the golden standard of the 100 point average and 15 point standard deviation, it became necessary to regularly restandardize the American IQ tests. In the first part of this paper we tackle three subjects: The observation of the "Flynn effect," its probable causes and its possible limit. In the second part we show that the "Flynn effect" might present a misdiagnosis risk for mental retardation when professionals use an obsolete version of an IQ test. This caveat especially applies given that the greatest risk of misdiagnosis is for borderline cases (with scores from 70 to 85). We also raise the possibility that a more complex environment due to the evolution of technologies might necessitate adjustment of the functional adaptability criteria for mental retardation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Tethering the elephant: Capital cases, IQ, and the Flynn effect.

Capital offenders cannot be executed if they are mentally retarded. Therefore, the IQ scores of offenders are important, and the U.S. 4th Circuit Court of Appeals has held that the Flynn effect is relevant to interpreting their IQ scores. The Flynn effect (IQ gains over time) means that different IQ tests will give different scores purely as a result of when the tests were normed. Because execution must not be a random result of what test defendants take, a formula is provided to convert IQ scores to a common metric: the norms current at the time the test was taken. The formula also includes a correction based on evidence that the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Third Edition inflates IQs because of sampling error. Given the inevitability that opposing experts will offer conflicting diagnoses, IQ scores merit special attention in capital cases. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Heterosis doesn't cause the Flynn effect: A critical examination of Mingroni (2007).

Mingroni (see record 2007-10421-011) proposed that heterosis or hybrid vigor may be the principal driver of the Flynn effect—the tendency for IQ scores to increase at a rate of approximately 3 points per decade. This model was presented as a resolution to the IQ paradox—the observation that IQ scores have been increasing despite their high adult heritability—on the basis that substantial changes in IQ can only be accounted for by changes in underlying genetic factors. It is here argued that this model is predicated upon a misconception of the Flynn effect, which is most pronounced on the least g-loaded components of cognitive ability tests and is uncorrelated with genetic effects such as inbreeding depression scores (which are correlated with the g loadings of tests). Evidence supportive of the recently proposed life history model of the Flynn effect is presented. In the discussion, other theoretical objections to the heterosis model are also considered. On this basis, it is concluded that the Flynn effect is strongly entwined with developmental status and that heterosis cannot be its principal cause. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Adjusting IQ scores for the Flynn effect: Consistent with the standard of practice?

Should psychologists adjust obtained IQ scores to accommodate the Flynn effect (J. R. Flynn, 1985)? The authors surveyed directors of doctoral training programs approved by the American Psychological Association and board-certified school psychologists and completed a systematic review of IQ test manuals, contemporary textbooks on IQ testing, federally regulated IQ testing protocols, and various sources of legal and ethical guidance. They confirmed in each instance that such adjustments to IQ scores do not comport with prevailing standards of psychological practice. Results of IQ testing may be applied to a broad range of psycholegal issues, many of which cannot be anticipated. Psychologists assist examinees, courts, and other 3rd parties most effectively by administering and interpreting IQ tests in their intended fashion. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Looking to science rather than convention in adjusting IQ scores when death is at issue.

The progressive obsolescence of IQ test norms and associated score inflation (i.e., the Flynn effect) may have literal life and death significance in capital mental retardation determinations (i.e., Atkins hearings). Hagan, Drogin, and Guilmette (2008) asserted that IQ score corrections for the Flynn effect were inconsistent with a “standard of practice” they deduced from custom, convention, and authority. More accurately, this reflected a proposed practice guideline or recommendation for practice, rather than a standard of practice. Whether a proposed guideline or recommendation for practice, these are better informed by an analysis of the available science than accepted convention. The authors reviewed research findings regarding the occurrence of the Flynn effect in the “zone of ambiguity” (IQ = 71–80), and proposed a best practice recommendation for discussing and reporting Flynn effect correction of IQ scores in capital mental retardation determinations. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

"Massive IQ gains in 14 nations: What IQ tests really measure": Correction to Flynn.

Reports an error in "Massive IQ gains in 14 nations: What IQ tests really measure" by James R. Flynn (Psychological Bulletin, 1987[Mar], Vol 101[2], 171-191). In this article, it was wrongly stated that that U. Schallberger put forward a hypothesis or hypotheses concerning the magnitude of Swiss IQ gains; in fact, he did not. Flynn wishes to acknowledge this error and stress that his critique of these hypotheses does not apply to Schallberger. Schallberger had earlier come to the same conclusion as Flynn, namely, that the Swiss have probably made sizable IQ gains, but all estimates of magnitude would have only speculative status. (The following abstract of the original article appeared in record 1987-17534-001.) Data from 14 nations reveal IQ gains ranging from 5 to 25 points in a single generation. Some of the largest gains occur on culturally reduced tests and tests of fluid intelligence. The Norwegian data show that a nation can make significant gains on a culturally reduced test while suffering losses on other tests. The Dutch data proved the existence of unknown environmental factors so potent that they account for 15 of the 20 points gained. The hypothesis that best fits the results is that IQ tests do not measure intelligence but rather a correlate with a weak causal link to intelligence. This hypothesis can also explain difficult trends on various mental tests, such as the combination of IQ gains and Scholastic Aptitude Test losses in the United States. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Aging and vocabulary score: A meta-analysis.

Vocabulary scores were examined in a total of 210 articles, containing 324 independent pairings of younger and older adults, from the 1986-2001 issues of Psychology and Aging. The average effect size, favoring the old, was 0.80 SD. Production tests yielded smaller effects (0.68 SD) than multiple-choice tests (0.93 SD). Both age and education were found to be partially independent determinants of performance in production tests; age effects disappeared in multiple-choice tests as soon as education was taken into account. In addition, the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Revised Vocabulary subtest (D. Wechsler, 1981) was also found to be sensitive to the Flynn effect Q. R. Flynn, 1987; i.e., increasing test scores with advancing birth year). The results question the approach of using age-group equality in vocabulary scores as a check on sample equivalence. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relationship between WPPSI and Stanford-Binet IQs and subsequent WISC IQs in Headstart children.

18 males and 24 females were tested on 2 IQ tests in the concluding weeks of a Head Start program in 1968-1969 and were retested on the WISC in 1972. In comparison to the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence, the Stanford-Binet seems better able to predict WISC scores. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Science rather than advocacy when reporting IQ scores.

The existence of shifts in mean IQ scores over time is well established. However, on a case-by-case basis, such shifts vary unreliably, rendering specific adjustments to a given individual's IQ score incalculable. Based upon data presented previously (Hagan, Drogin, & Guilmette, 2008) as well as a review of more recent studies that have further detailed the wide variability of mean score shifts, any proposal to “correct” IQ scores in forensic evaluations due to the “Flynn effect” (FE) is unjustifiable. To offer the court an unreliable new IQ score in place of an allegedly unreliable old one—and to do so specifically in capital murder cases as opposed to any other context—appears far more reflective of result-focused advocacy than objective scientific practice. Forensic psychologists are explicitly encouraged to address likely ranges of IQ score variability and to discuss in relevant detail the strengths and weaknesses of the specific studies—however much at odds these may be—that attempt to define and quantify mean score shifts. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Comparison of the WAIS and WAIS—R: Different results for different IQ groups.

Using a procedure that eliminated repetition of identical items, thus avoiding order effects, we administered the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) and the WAIS—Revised to 108 subjects. All correlations between the two tests were significant and similar to those reported in the WAIS—R manual. For the group as a whole, verbal, performance, and full scale IQ scores on the WAIS—R were significantly lower than their respective WAIS scores; however, this difference was not consistent across IQ levels. Subjects of both average and borderline intelligence had WAIS IQ scores significantly above their WAIS—R scores. For the mildly retarded subjects, the performance IQs were equal for the WAIS and WAIS—R, whereas the WAIS—R verbal and full scale IQ scores were higher than the corresponding WAIS IQ scores. However, these score differences were small (1 point) and of little practical value. The differences of moderately retarded subjects, on the other hand, were large and in the reverse direction: the WAIS—R IQ scores were significantly higher than the WAIS IQ scores. Clinical implications of these findings are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Expanding variance and the case of historical changes in IQ means: A critique of Dickens and Flynn (2001).

The Flynn effect is the rise in mean IQ scores during the 20th century, amounting to about 0.33 IQ points per year. Many theoretical explanations have been proposed, though none are universally accepted. W. Dickens and J. R. Flynn's (2001) new approach explains the large IQ changes by means of recursive models of IQ growth. A salient feature of their models is that IQ phenotypes and their supportive environments are correlated; in addition, environmental effects can rebound on phenotypic IQ to increase or lower IQ. In this critique, the authors examine an empirical challenge to their models, which typically imply large changes in IQ variance. However, the historical rise in IQ mean level has not been accompanied by substantial variance changes, a finding inconsistent with the properties of the proposed model. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Flynn effects not genetic and unrelated to race differences.

Comments on the article by J. R. Flynn (see record 1999-00167-001) which argued that massive IQ gains over time test the IQ-intelligence equation, reveal groups who achieve far beyond their mean IQ's and falsify prominent arguments for a genetic racial IQ gap. The author contends that Flynn fails to report in sufficient detail a summary of what the gains over time do and do not tell us about the nature of the Black–White difference. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Four practical and conceptual assessment issues that evaluators should address in capital case mental retardation evaluations.

What unique assessment issues do evaluators face when conducting mental retardation evaluations in capital cases? This article describes 4 assessment issues and reports how 20 evaluators in 1 state have approached them: (a) What methods are appropriate for evaluating adaptive functioning in this context? (b) Should information about criminal behavior be used as evidence of adaptive functioning? (c) Should correctional officers serve as informants regarding adaptive behavior? and (d) How should the Flynn effect influence the interpretation of intelligence test scores? Implications for practice are that practitioners should expect to be asked about the relation between criminal behavior and adaptive functioning, must think carefully about the validity of tests of adaptive functioning for inmates, and must be knowledgeable about the current state of Flynn effect research. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

IQ gains and fluid g.

Responds to J. P. Rushton's comments (see record 2000-15413-003) on the J. R. Flynn article (see record 1999-00167-001) examining IQ gains over time. Flynn contends that factor analysis does show that inbreeding depression isolated from a cluster including fluid g, IQ gains, and Black-White differences. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Intelligence, schooling, and society.

IQ test scores are measures of g, or general intelligence, the common element present in diverse tests of cognitive abilities that are positively related to each other. IQ scores are related to the acquisition of knowledge in school and occupational settings. IQ test scores also relate to the academic achievements of one's children. In many contexts, the relationship between IQ and various outcomes is not attributable to the relationship between IQ and social class background. IQ is an index that distinguishes among individuals with common social and demographic backgrounds. The relationship between IQ and various outcome measures may be reduced by relying on multivariable selection procedures, by modifying educational and occupational practices, and by interventions designed to increase IQ. Representative studies that provide evidence for these assertions are considered. Although the influence of the ability indexed by IQ may be reduced, it probably cannot be eliminated. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Retesting in selection: A meta-analysis of coaching and practice effects for tests of cognitive ability.

Previous studies have indicated that as many as 25% to 50% of applicants in organizational and educational settings are retested with measures of cognitive ability. Researchers have shown that practice effects are found across measurement occasions such that scores improve when these applicants retest. In this study, the authors used meta-analysis to summarize the results of 50 studies of practice effects for tests of cognitive ability. Results from 107 samples and 134,436 participants revealed an adjusted overall effect size of .26. Moderator analyses indicated that effects were larger when practice was accompanied by test coaching and when identical forms were used. Additional research is needed to understand the impact of retesting on the validity inferences drawn from test scores. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Survey of expert opinion on intelligence and aptitude testing.

Psychologists and educational specialists with expertise in areas related to intelligence testing responded to a questionnaire dealing with a wide variety of issues constituting the IQ controversy. Overall, experts hold positive attitudes about the validity and usefulness of intelligence and aptitude tests. Tests are seen as adequately measuring most important elements of intelligence, although the tests are believed to be somewhat racially and socioeconomically biased. There is overwhelming support for a significant within-group heritability for IQ, and a majority of respondents feel that black-white and socioeconomic status IQ differences are also partially hereditary. Problems with intelligence tests are perceived in the influence of nonintellectual characteristics on test performance and in the frequent misinterpretation and overreliance on test scores in elementary and secondary schools. Despite these difficulties, experts favor the continued use of intelligence and aptitude tests at their present level. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The hidden history of IQ and special education: Can the problems be solved?

Over the last 50 years, IQ gains and renorming tests have radically altered the percentage of Americans with IQs below 70. Moreover, the criterion for mental retardation was altered from 70, normed against Whites only, to 70, normed against all Americans. In fact, the proportion eligible to be classified as mentally retarded has varied from a high of 1 in 23 to a low of 1 in 213. These enormous fluctuations in the past engendered no response from practicing psychologists and no adequate response from test publishers. It must be concluded that no IQ criterion of mental retardation can be justified in terms of its correlation with impaired adaptive behavior. Because this correlation is the sole rationale of an IQ criterion, consideration should be given to the notion of abandoning IQ tests in favor of direct tests of impaired adaptive behavior. The fact that people will get quite different scores on different IQ tests can be manipulated by psychologists to suit their clients' needs. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Raising questions about raising IQs: Review of Intelligence and giftedness: The contributions of heredity and early environment.

Reviews the book, Intelligence and giftedness: The contributions of heredity and early environment by Miles D. Storfer (see record 1990-97741-000). For at least the past 70 years our IQ scores apparently have risen by the equivalent of approximately 1/5 to 1/4 of a point per year. If we accept the idea of what Flynn (1987) himself refers to as "Massive IQ gains" (and the supporting evidence that Flynn has amassed appears solid) our next step should clearly be an attempt to identify the factors responsible for these gains. Have our educational systems improved dramatically? What about our nutrition and general levels of health? Have home environments and parent-child interactions undergone radical changes? Besides environmental factors, is it possible that some sorts of hereditary mechanisms might be implicated? In Intelligence and giftedness: The contributions of heredity and early environment, Storfer addresses these and related issues. The result of his extensive review of the literature in areas as diverse as behavioural genetics, infant intelligence tests, white-black IQ differences, educational enrichment programs, and neurophysiology is a 500-plus-page book which is sometimes informative, often disappointing, and, in the end, too speculative to live up to its promotional claim of advancing "one of the most exciting and controversial evolutionary theories since Darwin". Parts of this book are good. Storfer is to be commended for the wide range of material that he surveys, and his attempts to integrate this diverse material have generally been successful. Another positive feature is the inclusion of numerous notes at the end of all but one chapter, plus one appendix, which provide additional information and/or technical details for readers interested in learning more about specific studies or issues mentioned briefly in the text. Unfortunately, Storfer does not seem to appreciate the varying quality of the research studies that he reviews, and some of the conclusions that he draws are highly speculative. Intelligence and giftedness was an ambitious project that would have benefitted considerably from a more cautious interpretation of the results and the implications of the research that it surveys. The issues that this book addresses and the questions that it raises are undoubtedly important and deserving of study. For the most part, however, the answers will have to be found elsewhere. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) and the WAIS-Revised: A comparison and a caution.

The WAIS and WAIS-R were administered to 52 18–48 yr olds in a format that combines the 2 tests and reduces the errors due to practice effects common in the usual test–retest methods of administration. Ss scored significantly lower on the WAIS-R than on the WAIS. Clinicians and others using IQ tests should be alerted to these results before they apply the usual assumptions concerning test scores and intellectual levels of functioning. (4 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)