On the Differences Between Academic Research Departments and Professional Schools.

Comments that Peterson (see record 2003-08988-002) offered an enlightening history of the origins of professional schools of psychology, but I think that some of his points need further elaboration, and others need to be cited. Stepping back, I think there is a basic role difference that must be taken into account between a professional school and a scholarly department. A professional school--of law, medicine, social work, or business--is engaged in the task of preparing professionals to meet the needs of a complex society for practitioners in that field. Yes, a few professional students in each field have a calling to become scholars and teachers, but the task of the school is first to produce people to serve. That means professional schools have some responsibility to provide people to meet society's diverse needs. The development of professional psychology schools in the 1970s was a response to the need for diverse, committed, and competent practitioners. This demand could not be served by academic departments, and that was not their function. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Twenty years of practitioner training in psychology.

Reviews the history of the professional school movement since the 1960's. It is suggested that major research universities are unlikely to establish practitioner programs in psychology and that education of most practitioners in psychology will take place in professional schools and small departments. It is noted that the doctoral degree granted upon completion of graduate study depends on the administrative location of the program in which graduate study is done. Graduates of scientist–practitioner programs and graduates of practitioner programs perform about equally well, and the curricula of professional schools and scientist–professional programs are more alike than different. It is concluded that the main differences between practitioner programs and scientist–professional programs lie in the attitudes and interests of faculty and students and that under some conditions the cultures of science and practice can be blended. (42 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Who Is a Psychologist?

The American Psychological Association has consistently opposed the granting of a professional degree (as, Doctor of Psychology), insisting that the professional psychologist must also be trained as a scientist. Proponents of a professional degree are always in a distinct minority. Yet we continue to welcome into full membership graduates of schools of education and theology, placing no restrictions upon their membership in the Association--and even providing for their certification in state legislation (EdDs are almost always eligible for such certification). The APA has almost no influence on these degrees. And rarely do these schools (education, theology, etc.) even recommend courses in experimental psychology, research design, etc., for their doctoral candidates. It looks as if we were refusing to accept the granting of the professional degree by psychologists but accepting it when it is granted by these other schools. This article discusses this discrepancy and questions who exactly can be called a psychologist. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

School psychology: A specialty of professional psychology with distinct competencies and complexities.

School psychology at the doctoral level is recognized as a specialty of professional psychology by the American Psychological Association, with corresponding licensure as a psychologist granted by state boards of psychology. School psychology also is regulated by state boards of education; they set the credentialing standards for professional practice in public schools. The intent of this article is to enhance the understanding of this distinct and multiply influenced specialty. The need for psychological services in schools is highlighted, followed by a discussion of multiple influences and licensing/credentialing issues. Next, the specialty is delineated, its distinctiveness highlighted, and competencies for practice in the public schools elaborated. Finally, education/training models and mechanisms for program accreditation are described, as are the major professional organizations in school psychology. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Professional training and professional competence: A critique of current thinking.

Contends that professional schools and doctor of psychology programs may well represent the wave of the future in clinical psychology training. Yet advocates of the professional training model are premature in asserting that the model, as it has thus far been defined and evaluated, assures higher standards of professional competence than do traditional programs and should therefore become the official model for training all practitioners. The present study examines these claims from both empirical and pedagogical perspectives. Empirically, there is as yet no support for the superiority of explicit professional programs. Indeed, the lack of valid methods for assessing professional competence precludes meaningful evaluation of any training model. In the absence of empirical support, the new training model is examined in the light of 20th-century philosophy of professional education. From this perspective, the professional model rests on false assumptions concerning both the nature of professional competence and the optimal curriculum for developing competence. (40 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Psychology applied to education: A specialty in search of an identity.

Proposes that a revision of doctoral school psychology be considered within the American Psychological Association that better meets standards for specialty status in professional psychology. School psychology as it currently exists has become a nondoctoral profession of a highly applied nature that is not really a product of psychology. A new professional specialty concerned with the application of psychology to education should be commensurate with accepted goals of professional psychology education and practice and meet at least 3 additional requirements: movement from concern for schools to concern for schooling, greater emphasis on an educational orientation than on mental health, and greater reliance on educational psychology as the knowledge base for professional practice. What is presently called school psychology is moving toward a doctoral specialization that is trying to decrease the gap between assessment and intervention. An impetus for this movement has been the use of behavioral psychology in educational settings. Educational psychology has expanded due to the development of cognitive psychology and decreased reliance on the laws of learning. (97 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Would you want your child to be a psychologist?

Describes past and present developments in the occupation of psychology and discusses 4 major areas psychology must address to survive as a discipline and preserve something to pass on to future generations. Technological advances will increase the use of computerized testing and assessment services, to identify mental disorders, select treatments, and predict outcomes of interventions. However, psychology must be marketed as primary care, not simply as a mental-health specialty. Although the diversity in psychology will open new markets for researchers and practitioners, psychological researchers and practitioners must be known as psychologists rather than as a proliferation of subspecialists. Psychology must also expand its interactions with other professional disciplines and advocate itself as a discipline for service to human needs. Psychologists should also prepare themselves for learning to prescribe psychotropic medication. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The Boulder Model: History, rationale, and critique.

Although the current philosophy of education in clinical psychology allows for the existence of a program of training clinical psychologists who primarily want to be practitioners in conjunction with the more traditional scientist-practitioner (Boulder model) program, the controversy over the value of the 2 types of program continues. The criticism of the Boulder model is that the rationale for requiring clinical psychology students to learn to do research as well as train to be clinicians was spurious; the Boulder model trains students as researchers, a role that is incompatible with their interests and abilities. The history of the development of the Boulder model is reviewed together with data regarding the personality traits, interests, and abilities of people interested in research as opposed to service work. Findings indicate that the objections of the critics are well founded. (6 p ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Compensation and the classroom: Doctor of psychology programs.

Results of a survey of 19 doctoral psychology programs indicate that the majority of faculty in university-affiliated free-standing professional programs are part-time, and their primary income and professional identity are outside the educational program. Questions are raised concerning faculty commitment to student education, financial viability and institutional stability, the history of free-standing schools in other professions, and whether psychology should continue to be based in the university. (4 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Determining the Optimal Number of Psychologists and Psychology Training Programs: A Cautionary Note.

Marwit (1982, see record 1982-28952-001) argues persuasively for the benefits of university affiliation for schools of professional psychology. However, as part of his discussion, he draws on questionable data in citing the need for additional training programs of this kind. His argument depends on the juxtaposition of epidemiological data, which summarize the prevalence of psychological disorder, and service-availability data. Because there are insufficient practitioners to serve the psychologically disturbed population, Marwit concludes that more practitioners are needed. Marwit's analysis fails to attend to several important considerations. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Professionalism within school psychology.

Seven attributes of professionalism are examined in light of school psychology: a profession's activities, self-regulation, professional preparation programs, socialization, status, rewards and recognition, and professional practice within organizations. More programs may be needed at the doctoral level. National organizations should become more involved at the state and regional levels. Professional status and identity are affected by esoteric knowledge, difficulty in obtaining an education, the centrality of school psychology within education and psychology, client qualities, and low salaries. Psychological services should be institutionalized in schools. (32 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Challenges to Professional Psychology Education in the 21st Century: Response to Peterson.

Professional psychology education faces many critical challenges brought about by the major changes occurring in the health care arena. This article shows that professional schools and programs have a good record of responding to these challenges and of taking proactive steps sponding to prepare their graduates for new health care roles and delivery systems. Data on admissions to psychology doctoral training programs demonstrate little support for the toral concerns raised by Donald R. Peterson (2003, this issue) about the preparation of students for graduate training in professional programs. Although quality concerns are important to investigate, such examination best resides with portant the American Psychological Association's Committee on Accreditation, which has the promotion of quality and excellence in professional psychology education and training as its major goal and responsibility. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Discussion 1.

Discusses the three articles by Meyers (see record 1989-17318-001), Phillips (see record 1989-17118-001), and Genshaft and Wiesniewski (see record 1989-17107-001) that comprise the symposium on the challenges and opportunities inherent in the future of social psychology, which centers on the linkages between psychological theories and research and school practice; the implications for the current state of knowledge and practice for professional education and training, especially the evaluation of professional preparation components; and finally, the ultimate effect that these new directions will have on credentialing and licensing standards, statues, and regulations. This is an important session for school psychology because we now enter a phase in our professional history where there are more than 10,000 practitioners identified with the field, more than 40 APA-accredited school psychology programs, a recently adopted set of policy statements for the joint accreditation of doctoral-level school psychology programs by the American Psychological Association (APA) and the National Association of School Psychologists (NASP), and standards for professional practice promulgated by these two organizations that share common elements and emphases. Moreover, national attention to the state of education at the elementary and secondary levels as well as precollege preparation, in combination with longstanding concerns for exceptional individuals, the handicapped, and the gifted, place psychology and school psychology in an advantageous position to contribute significantly to the education of all children as well as to the promotion of mental health and social role functioning of children, youths, and adults. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Role conflicts in psychology and their implications for a reevaluation of training models.

For 25 years training in clinical psychology has followed the Boulder model, attempting to make the clinical psychologist both a scientist and a professional. In this paper arguments are advanced which suggest that it is usually difficult and frequently impossible to make the same person into both a scientist and a professional. Science abhors secrecy, but professionals must keep their knowledge secret. Differences exist in personality characteristics in individuals attracted to the science or the profession. Training requirements are clearly different. Readiness to participate in social and political action also differentiates the groups. For these and other reasons the authors advance the argument that separate professional training schools for psychology must be established, following the historically evolving model provided by other professions. A division of training of psychologists in scientific and professional work may have beneficial effects by eliminating role conflicts in the professional and by making clear the essential division of labor. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

On reasoning from predicates: The PhD is not a professional degree.

Counters E. J. Shoben's (see record 1981-26598-001) arguments in favor of retaining the PhD degree as the most appropriate credential for professional practice. It is argued that (1) the ability to think critically and to write in a scholarly manner can be demonstrated by other means than the writing of a dissertation and the awarding of a PhD (accreditation standards and licensing regulations require a doctorate not a PhD); (2) although most faculty in professional schools and practitioners have a PhD, this reflects the fact that until recently no PsyD degrees were awarded; (3) psychology is solidly established enough as a profession to win acceptance of a separate professional degree; and (4) methods are proposed for preventing the PsyD from being perceived, incorrectly, as a watered down degree. (4 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The meaning of personality test scores.

The process of reexamining the methodological and metatheoretical assumptions of personality psychology over the past two decades has been useful for both critics and practitioners of personality research. Although the field has progressed substantially, some critics continue to raise 1960s-vintage complaints, and some researchers perpetuate earlier abuses. We believe that a single issue—construct validity—underlies the perceived and actual shortcomings of current assessment-based personality research. Unfortunately, many psychologists seem unaware of the extensive literature on construct validity. This article reviews five major contributions to our understanding of construct validity and discusses their importance for evaluating new personality measures. This review is intended as a guide for practitioners as well as an answer to questions raised by critics. Because the problem of construct validity is generic to our discipline, these issues are significant not only for personality researchers but also for psychologists in other domains. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

New York State: A case study in organizing psychology.

An analysis of efforts to organize the directors of psychology at the medical schools in New York State provides an interesting case study of the evolution of psychology's standing in medical school settings. Factors that facilitated this process, and organizational and professional dynamics that impeded it, are discussed. Timidity and lethargy are viewed as major factors that must be overcome in the ongoing efforts to build on what has been accomplished. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Issues related to postdoctoral education and training in professional psychology: Results of an opinion survey.

Is professional psychology assuming adequate responsibility for advanced training in the profession? Although professional psychology has taken enormous strides in articulating standards for doctoral and internship training, postdoctoral education and training (PDET) have received much less attention, resulting in a lack of clear guidelines for managing the transition from training to independent practice. Professional psychology's practitioners, educators, and trainees were asked to provide their opinions on a number of PDET-related issues. Data are presented that include broad support for maintaining the postdoctoral training year. Implications address steps to assist advanced students in maximizing their postdoctoral training experiences. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)