Promoting self-regulated learning in web-based learning environments

Self-regulated learning with the Internet or hypermedia requires not only cognitive learning strategies, but also specific and general meta-cognitive strategies. The purposes of the Study2000 project, carried out at the TU Dresden, were to develop and evaluate authoring tools that support teachers and students in web-based learning and instruction. This paper presents how the authoring tools of the Study2000 project can implement psychologically sound measures to promote (a) active and elaborated learning activities and (b) meta-cognitive activities in a web-based learning environment. Furthermore, it describes a study involving 72 university students in the use of such a web-based learning environment in a self-regulated learning setting at the university level. Results show that students spent almost 70% of their study time with texts, 11% with learning tasks and 12% with the active and elaborated learning tools, whereas meta-cognitive aids where hardly used (<1%).     

Applying learning behavioral Petri nets to the analysis of learning behavior in web-based learning environments

This paper proposes the learning behavioral Petri nets (LBPN) to model learning behavior in web-based environments. Fully useful records of learning behaviors must contain their expended time and corresponding contents. Therefore, the LBPN extends the colored tokens of colored Petri nets to identify learners and learning contents, and raises the time variable to represent diverse learning times for individual learners. To verify the viability of the LBPN, this paper also proposes a LBPN-based learning behavioral model to simulate a situation in which many learners participate in an e-learning course, and then to generate their behavioral patterns. The experimental results illustrated in this paper confirm that (1) the generated behavioral pattern based on the LBPN-based model is very close to actual data, (2) the time and cost spent to verify the effectiveness of an ITS is substantially reduced, (3) adequate testing data for estimating the performance and accuracy of an ITS is easily acquired, and (4) the LBPN-based model can be built to recommend appropriate learning contents and to accomplish adaptive learning.     

The role of feedback and self-efficacy on web-based learning: The social cognitive perspective

The social cognitive perspective of self-regulated learning suggests that effective learning is determined by the interactions among personal, behavioral, and environmental influences; particularly, high self-regulated learners hold higher motivation (personal), apply better learning strategies (behavioral) and respond to environmental demand more appropriately (environmental). The study thus uses the social cognitive perspective to explore the role of self-efficacy (personal), student feedback behavior, use of learning strategies (behavioral), performance and receiving feedback (environmental) in Web-based learning. There were 76 university students participated in this study. Both quantitative and qualitative methods were applied for data analysis. The results supported that self-efficacy predicted student use of learning strategies and related to elaborated feedback behavior (personal → behavioral). High self-efficacy students applied more high-level learning strategies, such as elaborative strategy and critical thinking. Students who provided elaborated feedback also had higher self-efficacy than those who did not. Moreover, receiving elaborative feedback significantly promoted student self-efficacy (environmental → personal), while receiving knowledge of correct response improved student performance. However, the results indicated that feedback behaviors did not predict academic performance, which may be interfered by modeling effects.     

Layered learning design: Towards an integration of learning design and learning object perspectives

The use of ICT to enhance teaching and learning depends on effective design, which operates at many levels of granularity from the small to the very large. This reflects the range of educational problems from course design down to the design of activities focused on specific learning objectives. For maximum impact these layers of design need to be co-ordinated effectively. This paper delineates a reference model of ‘layered learning design’ where designs at one layer should use and incorporate designs from lower (more specific) layers in elegant and powerful ways. This would allow different designers, or tutors, to focus on different levels of abstraction in the learning design process, and to collaborate in combining designs to make a substantial impact on practice.     

Towards a learning networked organisation: human capital, compatibility and usability in e-learning systems

In all parts of organisations there flourish developments of different new subsystems in areas of knowledge and learning. Over recent decades, new systems for classification of jobs have emerged both at the level of organisations and at a macro-labour market level. Recent developments in job evaluation systems make it possible to cope with the new demands for equity at work (between, for example, genders, races, physical abilities). Other systems have emerged to describe job requirements in terms of skills, knowledge and competence. Systems for learning at work and web-based learning have created a demand for new ways to classify and to understand the process of learning. Often these new systems have been taken from other areas of the organisation not directly concerned with facilitating workplace learning. All these new systems are of course closely interrelated but, in most organisations, a major problem is the severe lack of cohesion and compatibility between the different subsystems. The aim of this paper is to propose a basis for how different human resource systems can be integrated into the business development of an organisation. We discuss this problem and develop proposals alternative to integrated macro-systems. A key element in our proposition is a structure for classification of knowledge and skill to be used in all parts of the process. This structure should be used as an added dimension or an overlay on all other subsystems of the total process. This will facilitate a continued use of all existing systems within different organisations. We develop Burge's (personal communication) model for learning to show that learning is not a successive linear process, but rather an iterative process. In this way we emphasise the need for greater involvement of learners in the development of learning systems towards increased usability in a networked system. This paper is divided into two parts which are closely related. The first part gives an overview of the lack of compatibility between the different subsystems. In this first part we note two paradoxes which impact learning and for which we propose solutions. The second part deals with 'usability' aspects of these competency-related systems; in particular, usability in e-learning systems. In this second part we describe an example of a new organisational structure. We conclude by discussing four key concepts that are necessary conditions for organisations to address when developing their human capital. Establishing these conditions helps ensure compatibility and usability in e-learning systems.     

Interactive processes and learning attitudes in a web-based problem-based learning (PBL) platform

This paper discusses the steps taken to set up a digital logic course problem through a problem-based learning (PBL) constructivist approach. PBL is the learning which results from the process of working toward the understanding and resolution of a problem. The purpose of this study was to develop and implement problem-based learning in a digital logic course in a senior vocational industrial high school. Data collection included content analysis and a questionnaire survey. Content analysis was used to evaluate the students’ discussion messages, quality of dialogue, and the level of problem-solving activities. A survey was then administered to examine the students’ learning attitudes and perceptions toward this platform as a possible tool for PBL learning. Researchers found “Peer-responses” category is the most messages; the contents of messages focus on “General explanation” and “Reaction”; the level results of all groups’ problem-solving are similar; the index of the “Interaction” satisfaction level is the highest in PBL activity. Finally, some research suggestions were also proposed.     

Engaging online learners: The impact of Web-based learning technology on college student engagement

Widespread use of the Web and other Internet technologies in postsecondary education has exploded in the last 15 years. Using a set of items developed by the National Survey of Student Engagement (NSSE), the researchers utilized the hierarchical linear model (HLM) and multiple regressions to investigate the impact of Web-based learning technology on student engagement and self-reported learning outcomes in face-to-face and online learning environments. The results show a general positive relationship between the use the learning technology and student engagement and learning outcomes. We also discuss the possible impact on minority and part-time students as they are more likely to enroll in online courses.     

On extracting recommendation knowledge for personalized web-based learning based on ant colony optimization with segmented-goal and meta-control strategies

Personalized web-based learning has become an important learning form in the 21st century. To recommend appropriate online materials for a certain learner, several characteristics of the learner, such as his/her learning style, learning modality, cognitive style and competency, need to be considered. An earlier research result showed that a fuzzy knowledge extraction model can be established to extract personalized recommendation knowledge by discovering effective learning paths from past learning experiences through an ant colony optimization model. Though that results revealed the theoretical potential of the proposed method in discovering effective learning paths for learners, critical limitations arose when considering its applications in real world situations, such as the requirement of a large amount of learners and a long period of training cycles in order to discover good learning paths for learners. These practical issues motivate this research. In this paper, the aim is to resolve the aforementioned issues by devising more efficient algorithms that basically run on the same ant colony model yet requiring only a reasonable number of learners and training cycles to find satisfactory good results. The key approaches to resolving the practical issues include revising the global update policy, an adaptive search policy and a segmented-goal training strategy. Based on simulation results, it is shown that these new ingredients added to the original knowledge extraction algorithm result in more efficient ones that can be applied in practical situations.     

Model learning: a survey of foundations,tools and applications

Software systems are present all around us and playing their vital roles in our daily life. The correct functioning of these systems is of prime concern. In addition to classical testing techniques, formal techniques like model checking are used to reinforce the quality and reliability of software systems. However, obtaining of behavior model, which is essential for model-based techniques, of unknown software systems is a challenging task. To mitigate this problem, an emerging black-box analysis technique, called Model Learning, can be applied. It complements existing model-based testing and verification approaches by providing behavior models of blackbox systems fully automatically. This paper surveys the model learning technique, which recently has attracted much attention from researchers, especially from the domains of testing and verification. First, we review the background and foundations of model learning, which form the basis of subsequent sections. Second, we present some well-known model learning tools and provide their merits and shortcomings in the form of a comparison table. Third, we describe the successful applications of model learning in multidisciplinary fields, current challenges along with possible future works, and concluding remarks.     

Investigating university student preferences and beliefs about learning in the web-based context

Psychological studies have shown that personal beliefs about learning and environmental preferences affect learning behaviors. However, these learner characteristics have not been widely discussed in the web-based context. By developing questionnaires, this study attempted to detect learners’ web-based learning environmental preferences (WLEP) and beliefs about web-based learning (BWL). The scope of WLEP focused on the pedagogical dimension of the web-based learning environment, while BWL concerned the attributes and control factors of the web-based learning. There were about five hundreds of Taiwan university students participating in the study. Through factor analysis, the scales discussed in the study revealed a satisfactory validity and reliability in assessing students’ preferences and beliefs. Further analyses showed that university students preferred more of individual and structured instructional configurations while expected the outward mode of interaction. In general, students held a rather contextual belief about web-based learning, which was found to be correlated with their environmental preferences.     

Information commitments: evaluative standards and information searching strategies in web-based learning environments

Abstract 'Information commitments' include both a set of evaluative standards that Web users utilize to assess the accuracy and usefulness of information in Web-based learning environments (implicit component), and the information searching strategies that Web users use on the Internet (explicit component). An 'Information Commitment Survey' (ICS), consisting of aforementioned components, was developed. The participants of this study were 610 university students, coming from four universities in Taiwan, and their information commitments were surveyed. Through a series of structural equation modelling (SEM) analyses with Linear Structure RELationships (LISREL), this study confirmed the reliability and validity of ICS. More importantly, the causal relationships between the two components of ICS were also examined. The findings showed that learners' evaluative standards on Web materials (implicit component) had significant effects on their information searching strategies in Web-based learning environments (explicit component). For example, learners who utilized an advanced evaluative standard, such as using multiple sources to judge the accuracy of Web materials, were significantly more oriented toward using a sophisticated information searching strategy, such as carefully exploring and elaborating information in Web-based learning environments. In other words, learners' evaluative standards for Web materials should be viewed as important predictors for their searching strategies in Web-based learning environments.     

A model of (en)action to approach embodiment: a cornerstone for the design of virtual environments for learning

This paper presents a model of (en)action from a conceptual and theoretical point of view. This model is used to provide solid bases to overcome the complexity of designing virtual environments for learning (VEL). It provides a common grounding for trans-disciplinary collaborations where embodiment can be perceived as the cornerstone of the project. Where virtual environments are concerned, both computer scientists and educationalists have to deal with the learner/user’s body; therefore the model provides tools with which to approach both human actions and learning processes within a threefold model. It is mainly based on neuroscientific research, including enaction and the neurophysiology of action.     

Evaluation of computer tools for idea generation and team formation in project-based learning

The main objective of this research was to validate the effectiveness of Wikideas and Creativity Connector tools to stimulate the generation of ideas and originality by university students organized into groups according to their indexes of creativity and affinity. Another goal of the study was to evaluate the classroom climate created by these tools and the method “Think Actively in a Social Context” (TASC) proposed by Wallace and Adams (1993) and framed within project-based learning (PBL). The research was conducted with a sample of 34 students in the third year of a Computer Engineering degree, which, during a period of 15 weeks, required them to design and implement an innovative distributed application project. The procedure consisted of the implementation of the eight phases of the TASC method integrated to the Wikideas and Creativity Connector tools. The information provided by the tools, interviews and questionnaires administered to students were used to analyze our hypothesis. The results show that the tools helped the students to generate, evaluate and select the most relevant ideas and to form teams for project execution. They also revealed that teams with high indexes of creativity and affinity (type α) achieved the best grades in academic performance and project originality. Furthermore, research data show that Wikideas and Creativity Connector along with the TASC approach created a positive classroom climate for students. Based on this work, several suggestions can be extracted on the use of the tools and the TASC method for project-based learning.     

网络课程设计中存在问题及解决策略

网络课程设计思想日趋成熟和完善,在教学实践中得到广泛利用。但网络课程的设计仍存在一些问题。本文从网络课程各个模块的可更新性和各个模块的具体设计分析,提出网络课程存在的一些问题及解决策略。     

Group awareness tools for learning: Current and future directions

Group awareness has become an important concept since it was introduced into the field of computer-supported collaborative learning. This paper discusses current trends and future directions in this research field. It is argued that the development and implementation of tools should be complemented by systematic explorations into the mechanisms that moderate the relationship between group awareness and learning. It is suggested that variations in tool design features are a starting point for furthering our understanding of the processes involved in group awareness. Based on the contributions in this special issue, eight areas for future empirical investigations are identified. The paper concludes with some theoretical considerations on the nature of group awareness.     

The expression of social presence through the use of figurative language in a web-based learning environment

The present paper’s aim is to investigate how the participants of an online learning environment employed written language in a creative way through the spontaneous use of figurative language. The content analysis showed that figurative language was a means to express the social dimension either to refer to the self, feelings and emotions, or to conceptualize the components of the virtual learning setting. The research context was a 10-week course, delivered at a distance via a computer conferencing system, addressed to 57 student teachers. The analysis was carried out in the social and meta-cognitive reflection areas, those areas which are mainly related to the expression of the social dimension The study had three different purposes: to investigate the distribution of figurative language during the course length; to explore the relation between the participants’ educational background and their use of figurative language, and to examine the relation between figurative language and the structure of the communication threads. The results indicate that participants tended to use figurative language more when meaningful or critical events happened. The higher the emotional involvement was, the more metaphorical language was adopted. Further results suggest that the adoption of figurative language seems to be related more to individual attitude, than to other factors such as educational background. Finally, figurative language occurrences were not concentrated in specific kinds of postings or threads and did not encourage further use of figurative language.     

The role of collective efficacy, cognitive quality, and task cohesion in computer-supported collaborative learning (CSCL)

Research has suggested that CSCL environments contain fewer social context clues, resulting in various group processes, performance or motivation. This study thus attempts to explore the relationship among collective efficacy, group processes (i.e. task cohesion, cognitive quality) and collaborative performance in a CSCL environment. A total of 75 Taiwanese college students (divided into 25 groups) participated in the study. Both quantitative and qualitative methods were applied for data analysis. The results indicate that collective efficacy significantly predicted task cohesion but not cognitive quality in the CSCL environment. For the role of group processes in performance, both task cohesion and cognitive quality significantly predicted group performance, but cognitive quality predicted better than task cohesion. In addition, for the predictive capability of prior performance, task cohesion, and cognitive quality in collective efficacy, the results showed that only task cohesion predicted subsequent collective efficacy significantly in the CSCL environment.     

The effects of feedback protocol on self-regulated learning in a web-based worked example learning environment

The current research investigated the effects of differing feedback protocols in a Web-based worked example learning environment to determine if changes would occur over time in goal orientation, self-regulation, self-efficacy or achievement. Participants from an undergraduate chemistry course were assigned to either a norm-referenced or self-referenced feedback group to receive feedback in relation to their performance on a weekly quiz administered via the Web. Results revealed that participants did not significantly change their goal orientation type or magnitude as a result of the differing feedback protocols, even with the addition of learning environment perception as a potential mediating variable. However, participants made significant decreases along the mastery approach and performance approach goal orientation sub-scales, regardless of the type of feedback received. While this was not anticipated, the results are consistent with other recent research within this context. An unanticipated trend also emerged, as those from the norm-referenced feedback group with a class-task perception of the learning environment were less likely to use worked examples but also demonstrated the greatest gains in self-efficacy. These were unanticipated outcomes and contrary to prior research. Recommendations for future research within this context such as authenticating participants’ perceptions of their assigned treatment condition, introducing additional feedback protocols such as a combined, choice, or control condition and building in a better gauge to track the time and context of changes within the constructs of interest are also discussed.     

Creative connections: user, designer, context, and tools

The design symposium ‘creative connections discusses the designers’ tools in the conceptual phase. Over the past few decades, many considerations, which hitherto occured before or after conceptualizing have become an integrated part of concept development. Examples are studies of users and contexts, and expressive new materials. Also, design tools are becoming increasingly, almost exclusively, computer-based. But current computer tools lack fluency, directness, and bodily involvement of the traditional paper tools, properties which are essential in the creative activities of conceptualizing, The symposium, and its four attached bazaar papers, deal with new tools that are being developed, and old tools that are evolving, to help designers at coping with this complexity of factors. This paper is part of the 3AD design colloquium creative connections.     

The impact of learning design on student behaviour,satisfaction and performance: A cross-institutional comparison across 151 modules

Pedagogically informed designs of learning are increasingly of interest to researchers in blended and online learning, as learning design is shown to have an impact on student behaviour and outcomes. Although learning design is widely studied, often these studies are individual courses or programmes and few empirical studies have connected learning designs of a substantial number of courses with learning behaviour. In this study we linked 151 modules and 111.256 students with students' behaviour (<400 million minutes of online behaviour), satisfaction and performance at the Open University UK using multiple regression models. Our findings strongly indicate the importance of learning design in predicting and understanding Virtual Learning Environment behaviour and performance of students in blended and online environments. In line with proponents of social learning theories, our primary predictor for academic retention was the time learners spent on communication activities, controlling for various institutional and disciplinary factors. Where possible, appropriate and well designed communication tasks that align with the learning objectives of the course may be a way forward to enhance academic retention.