Does centralized residence promote the use of cleaner cooking fuels? Evidence from rural China

The Chinese government has implemented the rural centralized residence (RCR) policy to promote rural development in 24 provinces since 2005. This study aims to estimate the effects of RCR on households' choice of clean cooking fuels by applying the instrumental variable approach on a dataset with 3685 observations in Sichuan Province. The empirical analysis showed that RCR has a significant positive effect on the choice of clean cooking fuels. We also found that RCR makes farmer households shift from using non-clean energy to clean energy for cooking by increasing both their total income and the cost of collecting and storing traditional fuels. Peer effects also motivate households to use clean cooking fuels. Further analysis indicates that an increase in the expenditure on clean energy due to RCR does not increase the farmer households' living burden, since the increase in the total income caused by RCR is much greater. Considering the accessibility and affordability of clean energy, the RCR policy could improve the standards of living among rural residents and synergistically promote energy transition in rural China.     

Lignocellulosic biomass gasification technology in China

With the critical worldwide energy shortage and global environment concern, lignocellulosic biomass is regarded as one of the potential renewable energy resources to substitute conventional fossil fuels. Among various thermo-chemical conversion technologies, gasification is now regarded as an advanced and efficient method. Based on the mechanism of biomass gasification, this paper outlines different types of gasifiers that have been developed in China. Air gasification technology has been employed in the rural areas or forestry/agricultural processing entities. Obviously, the product gas for cooking and heating can significantly upgrade the living standard of rural residents. The product gas for heating boiler and generating electricity benefits the forest or agricultural processing enterprises. For China’s sustainable development of energy and environment, multi-cogeneration of heat, electricity and liquid fuels together with chemical feedstock will be a potential direction for efficiently utilizing product gas from lignocellulosic biomass. This means oxygen (including oxygen-enriched air) gasification and steam gasification should be taken into more consideration.     

Domestic energy consumption in India (Pondicherry region)

Surveys have been conducted in 200 households in and around Pondicherry, in 45 households of each of two rural and two semi-urban areas, and in 20 households in an urban area. The families surveyed cover the Economically Weaker Section, the Low Income Group, the Middle Income Group, and the High Income Group; there were 60 families in each of the first three categories in rural and semi-urban areas and 20 of the fourth category in the urban area. The objective of this empirical study was to determine the daily household energy consumption for cooking, lighting, heating water, and for household electrical appliances.

The average energy content of the commercial and non-commercial fuels used for cooking, heating water and lighting has been determined on a per capita daily basis. The seasonal and hourly variations have also been determined for cooking and lighting loads. The baseline data, which give the caloric values and costs for various kinds of fuels are presented in the Appendix. This survey contains previously unavailable data on village level domestic energy needs, their magnitudes and diurnal profiles.     

Model projections for household energy use in developing countries

The residential sector plays an important role in the energy system of developing countries. In this paper we introduce a bottom up simulation model for household energy use. The model describes energy demand for several end-use functions based on a set of physical drivers, such as floor space and heating degree days. The model also recognizes different population groups: i.e. urban and rural households, each distinguishing five income quintiles. The model is applied to analyze possible future developments of residential energy use in five developing world regions: India, China, South East Asia, South Africa and Brazil. We find that in each of these regions cooking is currently the main end-use function, but that other functions, such as space heating, cooling and appliances become more important. At the same time, energy consumption slowly shifts towards modern fuels. The model also shows that climate policy can reduce residential energy emissions, but could also slow down the energy transition away from traditional fuels in low income classes.     

Comprehending household cooking energy choice in rural India

Energy is essential to attain the quality of life and economic prosperity in a society. In the rural areas of India, cooking dominates the aggregate consumption of energy. This energy demand is mostly met by biomass fuels, which have many associated inherent disadvantages. Hence, it is important to understand the decision making process in rural households regarding the choice of cooking fuels. For this purpose, household information using the 61st round of National Sample Survey is analyzed for the rural parts of India. The logistic regression model is used to explain the determinants of clean fuel use for cooking purposes. The study shows that number of educated females between 10 and 50 years of age, average household education index, regular salary, and monthly per capita consumption expenditure have a positive and significant impact on probability of using clean cooking fuels, whereas possessing a Below Poverty Line ration card, belonging to reserved caste categories, family size and size of farm land have a significant negative linkage.     

Domestic fuel energy consumption in an Indian urban ecosystem

Berhampur is one of the oldest and biggest towns of Orissa State where 93% of people earn their living from non-primary economic activities. The fuel consumption structure reveals an element of rural bias since the domestic sector derives 49% of its energy used for cooking and heating from biomass sources. Firewood is the only fuel used by all income groups and almost all occupations. Other traditional fuels such as dungcake, agricultural waste and leaf litter are used in the town with different degrees of dominance in various occupation groups and income classes. The inequality of income distribution is reflected in the fuel consumption structure of the rich and poor with greater dependence on non-biomass in the high income group and biomass in the low income group. Family size is an important determinant of biomass fuel use. For the urban poor, there is a relationship between income and fuel consumption. There exists scope for enlarging the biomass base by utilising the available bio-wastes and developing a green belt around the town. This requires some rural features in the urban area using new technologies.     

Benefits from a renewable energy village electrification system

More than 100 years after Edison's life changing discovery, 1.6–2 billion people around the globe still live without light, in dark and smoke filled homes. The remote and impoverished Himalayan villages of upper Humla, in north-west Nepal, belong to some of the 2.4 billion people who still depend on the use of traditional biomass for their daily energy services such as cooking, heating and light. These activities on open fireplaces have a direct chronic impact on the health and extremely low life expectancy of the women and children along with devastating deforestation.There is a strong relationship between prosperity and access to electricity. The more remote and isolated communities in Nepal generally live in great poverty. Eighty percent of Nepal's 28.5 million people live in rural areas, with around half of these so remote, that neither a road, nor the national grid is ever likely to reach them.While Nepal has no fossil fuel resources, it is a country that is rich in renewable energy resources such as hydropower and solar energy. These abundant and locally available renewable energy resources can be tapped into with appropriate locally developed technologies. Generating and storing electrical energy derived from these rich local energy resources can provide for appropriate and sustainable lighting, which brings potential health, education, social and economic benefits to the people who have previously lived in homes with excessive indoor air pollution.This paper describes the living conditions of some villages in upper Humla, and the possible benefits of a simple village electrification system that provides basic lighting for the homes and the consequent improvements in the living conditions of the villagers.     

Household energy mix in Uganda

This paper presents evidence that household energy use in Uganda conforms to the energy ladder theory. As household income increases, solid and transitional fuel use evolves in an inverse U manner, while electricity consumption shows a direct relationship with income. Public infrastructure provision, income, and education are the key variables which can be targeted to reduce household dependence on solid-fuels while increasing non-solid fuel use. While education and public infrastructure have varying impacts on rural and urban households' energy mix, these variables generally reduce rudimentary fuel use and increase modern fuel consumption. Timely investment in electricity infrastructure is necessary to cater for burgeoning electricity demand as households become affluent. Strategies for reforestation, dissemination of improved cookstoves, relieving supply side constraints for modern fuels, and staggered payment options to lower the cost of entry for modern fuels can improve Ugandan households' energy security.     

Mapping of fuelwood trees using geoinformatics

Rural population of India constitutes about 70% of the total population and traditional fuels account for 75% of the rural energy needs. Depletion of woodlands coupled with the persistent dependency on fuel wood has posed a serious problem for household energy provision in many parts. This study highlights that the traditional fuels still meet 85–95% of fuel needs in rural areas of Kolar district; people prefer fuel wood for cooking and agriculture residues for water heating and other purposes. However, rapid changes in land cover and land use in recent times have affected these traditional fuels availability necessitating inventorying, mapping and monitoring of bioresources for sustainable management of bioresources. Remote sensing data (Multispectal and Panchromatic), Geographic Information System (GIS), field surveys and non-destructive sampling were used to assess spatially the availability and demand of energy. Field surveys indicate that rural household depends on species such as Prosopis juliflora, Acacia nilotica, Acacia auriculiformis to meet fuel wood requirement for domestic activities. Hence, to take stock of fuel wood availability, mapping was done at species level (with 88% accuracy) considering villages as sampling units using fused multispectral and panchromatic data.     

Hybrid application of biogas and solar resources to fulfill household energy needs: A potentially viable option in rural areas of developing countries

The absence of clean cooking facilities and electricity means billions of rural people are deprived of much needed socioeconomic development. Livestock residues (dung) and solar radiation are two renewable energy resources that are abundantly available in rural areas of developing countries. Although it is not feasible for these two resources separately to meet both thermal (cooking) and electricity demands, hybrid applications have not been given due attention. To facilitate integrating these two resources in rural energy planning, and to promote their dissemination through hybrid applications, it is necessary to evaluate their economic merits, and assess their ability to deal with the demands. In this paper, we examine the techno-economic performance of hybrid applications of these two resources by applying a simulation technique using the HOMER tool, and by giving derived cost-saving equations. We also quantify the monetary savings from replacing traditional fuels, and perform a sensitivity analysis on a number of variables (e.g. dung cost, fuelwood cost) to see how they affect the performance of different energy supply alternatives. Furthermore, we examine the practical applicability of the biogas system in the households through a structured survey of 72 ongoing household biogas plants. This study finds that households that have between three and six cattle can potentially meet their cooking and electricity loads through a hybrid implementation of biogas and solar PV (Photovoltaic) system. By replacing conventional fuels households can achieve savings that are more than the total annualized costs incurred for installing new services.     

Cooking in West Sumatra: Interfuel substitution and the choice of cooking method

The results of a survey on energy consumption in cooking in five villages in West Sumatra, Indonesia, are used to investigate the substitution of commercial fuels for non-commercial ones in a rural community. Land-use patterns, the availability of non-commercial fuelwood and the state of socio-economic development of the villages (affecting the average income, availability of commercial fuels and the expectations of the villagers) all influenced the types and quantities of fuel use. Within each village cooking energy consumption and the type of cooking method chosen varied considerably with income and household size, and with the individual preferences of each villager.     

Energy performance of wood-burning cookstoves in Michoacan, Mexico

There have been few detailed assessments of the actual impacts of improved stove interventions in rural communities, although many improved stove projects have reported overall efficiencies from tests in simulated kitchens using water-boiling tests (WBTs). This paper presents an integrated energy evaluation of the Patsari cookstove, an efficient wood-burning cookstove developed in Mexico that has recently obtained international recognition, in comparison to traditional cookstoves in rural communities of Michoacan, Mexico. The evaluation uses three standard protocols: the WBT, which quantifies thermal efficiency and firepower; the controlled cooking test (CCT), which measures specific energy consumption associated with local cooking tasks, and the kitchen performance test (KPT), which evaluates the behavior of the stoves in-field conditions and estimates fuel savings. The results showed that the WBT gave little indication of the overall performance of the stove in rural communities. Field testing in rural communities is of critical importance, therefore, in estimating the benefits of improved stoves. In the CCT for tortilla making, the main cooking task in Mexican rural households, Patsari stoves showed fuelwood savings ranging from 44% to 65% in relation to traditional open fires (n=6; P<0.05). These savings were similar in magnitude to the average energy savings from KPT before and after Patsari adoption of 67% (n=23; P<0.05) in rural households exclusively using fuelwood. Similar energy savings of 66% for fuelwood and 64% for LPG, respectively, were also observed in households using mixed fuels. With sound technical design, critical input from local users and proper dissemination strategies, therefore, improved stoves can significantly contribute to improvements in the quality of life of rural people with potential benefits to the surrounding environment.     

Energy security issues at household level in India

Energy security at the household level implies ensuring assured and regular supply of clean energy fuels at an affordable price for various household activities. Threat to physical availability of clean energy fuels for cooking and lighting is determined through various indicators such as dependence on traditional fuels and limited access to clean fuels. Energy insecurity translates into various adverse social impacts. Financial threat to energy security is indicated by expenses incurred on energy fuels and affordability of clean fuels. Households spend a major portion of their income on acquiring energy fuels; however, due to high price of clean fuels, they continue to depend on traditional and inefficient fuels. There is an urgent need to address factors that pose a threat to energy security at the household level. In this regard, measures taken by the government agencies and other institutions are also reviewed. The paper also suggests the regulatory and policy interventions required to address the energy security issues at the household level.     

Financial analysis of cooking energy options for India

A financial analysis of cooking energy options is attempted for India using data from a field study and real costs and prices. The fuels considered are; fuelwood, kerosene, biogas, liquid petroleum gas (LPG) and electricity. Traditional and efficient devices and different discount rates are used in the analysis. Financial analysis for rural areas shows that the efficient Astra-stove using wood is the least cost option and biogas, which is the only quality fuel option for rural areas, is the most expensive option. The subsidised kerosene option is cheaper than wood in the traditional stove. The ranking of options from low to high costs is from fuelwood to kerosene to LPG to biogas. In the urban situation, the subsidy on kerosene distorts the energy ladder. Kerosene is the low cost fuel option, and fuelwood in the traditional stove is among the most expensive options. The existing subsidies on kerosene, LPG and electricity seem to benefit middle and high income groups, particularly in urban areas. Low income households in urban and rural areas are forced to use fuelwood in traditional stoves, which is not only a low quality fuel but is also a high cost cooking energy option. The efficiency of the device is shown to be a crucial factor in determining the cost of using a fuel. Low income households are disadvantaged, as they use traditional low efficiency wood stoves. A need to alter energy policies to promote quality fuels and efficient devices in an accessible way to low income households is highlighted.     

Changing structure of income indoor air pollution relationship in India

Bio fuels are still a major source for cooking by many households in developing countries such as India causing significant disease burden due to indoor air pollution. While household income influences the choice of fuel the policies that affect accessibility and price of fuels also have an important role in determining the fuel choice. This study analyzes the pollution–income relationship for the period 1983–2000, separately across rural and urban households in India based on unit record data on fuel consumption obtained through National Sample Surveys. While a non-monotonic relationship is observed in rural India in both the decades, in urban India a similar relationship is observed only for the initial period indicating faster transition towards ‘cleaner’ fuels mainly enabled by policies that have been pro-urban. The study also finds that the impact of household size and composition on bio fuels is more negative than for clean fuels and is increasingly negative over time possibly due to greater awareness about the ill effects of such fuels.     

Solar cooker with latent heat storage systems: A review

Cooking with the sun has become a potentially viable substitute for fuel-wood in food preparation in much of the developing world. Energy requirements for cooking account for 36% of total primary energy consumption in India. The rural and urban population, depend mainly, on non-commercial fuels to meet their energy needs. Solar cooking is one possible solution but its acceptance has been limited partially due to some barriers. Solar cooker cannot cook the food in late evening. That drawback can be solved by the storage unit associated with in a solar cooker. So that food can be cook at late evening. Therefore, in this paper, an attempt has been taken to summarize the investigation of the solar cooking system incorporating with phase change materials (PCMs).     

Dynamics of rural energy access in India: An assessment

India’s rural energy challenges are formidable with the presence of majority energy poor. In 2005, out of a rural population of 809 million, 364 million lacked access to electricity and 726 million to modern cooking fuels. This indicates low effectiveness of government policies and programs of the past, and need for a more effective approach to bridge this gap. However, before the government can address this challenge, it is essential that it gain a deeper insight into prevailing status of energy access and reasons for such outcomes. Toward this, we perform a critical analysis of the dynamics of energy access status with respect to time, income and regions, and present the results as possible indicators of effectiveness of policies/programmes. Results indicate that energy deprivations are highest for poorest households with 93% depending on biomass for cooking and 62% lacking access to electricity. The annual growth rates in expansion in energy access are gradually declining from double digit growth rates experienced 10 years back to just around 4% in recent years. Regional variations indicate, on an average, cooking access levels were 5.3 times higher in top five states compared to bottom five states whereas this ratio was 3.4 for electricity access.     

Modeling household cooking fuel choice: A panel multinomial logit approach

We use three rounds of a rich panel data set to investigate the determinants of household cooking fuel choice and energy transition in urban Ethiopia. We observe that the expected energy transition did not occur following economic growth in Ethiopia during the decade 2000–2009. Regression results from a random effects multinomial logit model, which controls for unobserved household heterogeneity, show that households' economic status, price of alternative energy sources, and education are important determinants of fuel choice in urban Ethiopia. The results also suggest the use of multiple fuels, or ‘fuel stacking behavior’. We argue that policy makers could target these policy levers to encourage transition to cleaner energy sources.     

The potential to generate solar hydrogen for cooking applications: Case studies of Ghana,Jamaica and Indonesia

This paper evaluates one option to replace traditional cooking fuels in developing economies with a flexible, modular and clean solution of solar hydrogen, based on a numerical and experimentally tested system to address technical and safety issues. The study focuses on Ghana, Jamaica and Indonesia as examples of developing economies using fossil fuels for domestic cooking. Statistical analyses are performed and the domestic cooking demand profiles are created for these countries based on available data and a specific quantitative study in Ghana. The derived cooking demand profiles are used to size solar hydrogen plant case-studies for rural communities based on a TRNSYS numerical model. The results indicate that hydrogen plant sizing and management satisfy annual cooking demands of the communities which are 621.6 kg H₂ for Jamaica, 631 kg H₂ for Indonesia and 785 kg H₂ for Ghana. The effect of the weather data on the simulation is estimated by comparison between TMY and recent weather data for Jamaica. Finkelstein-Schafer statistics indicate differences between the composite and recent weather data, but these prove to have minor effect on simulation results, with 0.9% difference in hydrogen generation. The potential to establish solar hydrogen plants in the countries is further evaluated by creating novel solar hydrogen potential maps.     

Demand for cooking fuels in a developing country: To what extent do taste and preferences matter?

Overreliance on biomass energy, such as firewood and charcoal, for cooking in developing countries has contributed to high rates of deforestation and resulted in substantial indoor pollution, which has negatively impacted the health of many individuals. However, the effectiveness of public policies aimed at encouraging households to switch to cleaner fuels, such as liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) and kerosene, hinges on the extent to which they are mentally committed to specific fuels. Using data on four cooking fuels (charcoal, firewood, LPG, and kerosene) from the Ghana living standards survey, we found strong evidence that the most preferred fuel is LPG, followed by charcoal, with kerosene the least preferred. In addition, with the exception of kerosene that has price-elastic demand, the price elasticities of demand for the fuel types examined are inelastic. This finding suggests the so-called fuel-ladder is not robust.