Use of physiological signals to predict cybersickness

Cybersickness is a common and unpleasant side effect of virtual reality immersion. We measured physiological changes that were experienced by seated subjects who interacted with a virtual environment (VE) first while viewing a display monitor and second while using a head-mounted display (HMD). Comparing results for these two conditions let us identify physiological consequences of HMD use. In both viewing conditions, subjects rated the severity of their symptoms verbally and completed a post-immersion cybersickness assessment questionnaire. In the HMD viewing condition but not in the display monitor condition, verbal reports of cybersickness severity increased significantly relative to baseline. Half of the subjects chose to exit the VE after six minutes of HMD use and reported feeling some nausea at that time. We found that changes in stomach activity, blinking, and breathing can be used to estimate post-immersion symptom scores, with R² values reaching as high as 0.75. These results suggest that HMD use by seated subjects is strongly correlated with the development of cybersickness. Finally, a linear discriminant analysis shows that physiological measures alone can be used to classify subject data as belonging to the HMD or monitor viewing condition with an accuracy of 78%.     

Postural stability predicts the likelihood of cybersickness in active HMD-based virtual reality

Cybersickness is common during virtual reality experiences with head-mounted displays (HMDs). Previously it has been shown that individual differences in postural activity can predict which people are more likely to experience visually-induced motion sickness. This study examined whether such predictions also generalise to the cybersickness experienced during active HMD-based virtual reality. Multisensory stimulation was generated by having participants continuously turn their heads from left to right while viewing the self-motion simulations. Real-time head tracking was then used to create ecological (‘compensated’) and non-ecological (‘inversely compensated’) head-and-display motion conditions. Ten (out of 20) participants reported feeling sick after being exposed to these self-motion simulations. Cybersickness did not differ significantly between the two compensation conditions. However, individual differences in spontaneous postural instability when standing quietly were found to predict the likelihood of subsequently experiencing cybersickness. These findings support recent proposals that postural measures can help diagnose who will benefit the most/least from HMD-based virtual reality.     

Effects of postural stability,active control,exposure duration and repeated exposures on HMD induced cybersickness

Cybersickness is common during head-mounted display (HMD) based virtual reality. This study examined whether it is possible to: (1) identify people who are more susceptible to this cybersickness; and (2) find general ways to reduce its occurrence and severity. Our participants were exposed to HMD-based virtual reality four times over two different days (using “Freedom Locomotion VR”). During these 10-min trials, participants were either free-standing or posturally restrained as they actively controlled or passively viewed their locomotion through the virtual environment. Cybersickness was found to increase steadily over time during each exposure. While this cybersickness was markedly reduced on day 2 (compared to day 1), it was not significantly altered by either the use of postural restraints or active locomotion control. However, the sick and well participants in our study were found to differ in terms of their spontaneous postural activity (before they entered virtual reality). We found that the participants who experienced stronger vection also tended to report more severe cybersickness in this study. These findings suggest that we should be able to identify people who are more susceptible to cybersickness and help them become more resistant to it (via repeated exposures to HMD-based virtual reality).     

Vection and cybersickness generated by head-and-display motion in the Oculus Rift

Cybersickness is often experienced when viewing virtual environments through head-mounted displays (HMDs). This study examined whether vection (i.e., illusory self-motion) and mismatches between perceived and physical head motions contribute to such adverse experiences. Observers made oscillatory yaw head rotations while viewing stereoscopic optic flow through an Oculus Rift HMD. Vection and cybersickness were measured under 3 conditions of visual compensation for physical head movements: “compensated”, “uncompensated”, and “inversely compensated”. When a nearer aperture was simulated by the HMD, vection was found to be strongest in the “compensated” condition and weakest in the “inversely compensated” condition. However, vection was similar for all 3 conditions during full-field exposures. Cybersickness was most severe for the “inversely compensated” condition, but was not different for the other two conditions. We conclude that mismatches between perceived and physical head-movements can contribute strongly to cybersickness. The relationship between vection and cybersickness is weaker and appears complex.     

The evaluation of user experience of a human walking and a driving simulation in the virtual reality

Virtual reality (VR) has been implemented in various applications such as gaming, e-learning, rehabilitation, etc. Although many studies have been conducted to evaluate the user experiences (UX) of various applications in VR, there are few studies evaluating the UX of VR in a holistic view. Since user experience means holistic feelings caused by attributes like efficiency, effectiveness, pleasure, and attractiveness, it is necessary to evaluate user experience in many respects, including presence, usability, and workload. Therefore, this study aims to evaluate the UX of VR in four various metrics: presence, workload, usability, and flow. In this study, the user experience factor was confirmed through the previous studies comparing visual display terminals (VDT) and head-mounted displays (HMD). In addition, the UX difference between VDT and HMD in two different situations, walking and driving, is analyzed. The data of 26 participants were analyzed and found that there were significant differences in the four studied metrics related to UX. In the driving situation, the usability value was higher in VDT, whereas they were higher in HMD for walking. Comparing the two contexts in HMD, walking was significantly higher in three metrics: presence, usability, and flow. The results show that HMD is better in terms of user experience than VDT, and HMD is more suitable for walking situations than for driving situations. Through this study, in terms of user experience, it is suitable to replace walking tasks with VR when the experiment in a real-world environment is impossible.     

Effects of virtual presence and learning outcome using low-end virtual reality systems

Low-cost technology is essential to integrate Virtual Reality (VR) into educative institutions around the world. However, low-cost technology usually refers to low-end technology, which may compromise the level of immersion of the VR system. This study evaluates whether low-end and high-end VR systems achieve a comparable learning outcome regardless their immersion level. We also analyze the relationship between virtual presence and the learning outcome arising from a VR educational experience. An evaluation with 42 participants was conducted. We measured learning outcome and virtual presence under three different configurations, namely: a desktop computer, a low-end VR system, and a high-end VR system. The impact of simulator sickness was also analyzed. Results revealed a lower learning outcome in the less immersive configuration (i.e. desktop) and a similar learning outcome in both low-end and high-end VR systems. Even though low-end VR systems are less immersive and produce a lower level of virtual presence than high-end VR systems, the results support the use of low-end VR systems for educative applications.     

Usability of the size,spacing, and operation method of virtual buttons with virtual hand on head-mounted displays

Virtual reality (VR) allows users to see and manipulate virtual scenes and items through input devices, like head-mounted displays. In this study, the effects of button size, spacing, and operation method on the usability of virtual buttons in VR environments were investigated. Task completion time, number of errors, and subjective preferences were collected to test different levels of the button size, spacing, and operation method. The experiment was conducted in a desktop setting with Oculus Rift and Leap motion. A total of 18 subjects performed a button selection task. The optimal levels of button size and spacing within the experimental conditions are 25 mm and between 5 mm and 9 mm, respectively. Button sizes of 15 mm with 1-mm spacing were too small to be used in VR environments. A trend of decreasing task completion time and the number of errors was observed as button size and spacing increased. However, large size and spacing may cause fatigue, due to continuous extension of the arms. For operation method, the touch method took a shorter task completion time. However, the push method recorded a smaller number of errors, owing to the visual push-feedback. In this paper, we discuss advantages and disadvantages in detail. The results can be applied to many different application areas with VR HMD using virtual hand interaction.     

Immersive virtual reality in the age of the Metaverse: A hybrid-narrative review based on the technology affordance perspective

Immersive virtual reality (VR) that utilizes head-mounted displays (HMD) is one of the key emerging technologies of the 21st century and has drawn keen attention from consumers, practitioners, and scholars in various disciplines. Nevertheless, the information systems (IS) discipline has neglected immersive VR, given that only a handful of studies have been published in mainstream IS journals. However, the recent advancements in immersive VR technology provide new opportunities for organizations and IS researchers. In light of these points, we reviewed the immersive VR literature to provide a holistic view of opportunities and challenges for organizations and future research directions for the IS field. By examining the technical capabilities of immersive VR and the previous literature, we identified five affordances: embodiment, interactivity, navigability, sense-ability, and create-ability. Our review of the 151 studies from the IS and related fields synthesized how these affordances were utilized in various research domains. Guided by the affordance-actualization theory, we also identified the strategic opportunities and challenges that come with implementing VR. The actualization of immersive VR affordances in organizations is indeed a fruitful area for IS scholars as there are various venues to move the IS field as well as the VR research in the organizational context forward.     

Towards a narrative theory of virtual reality

Virtual Reality (VR), by its nature and characteristics, is of specific interest to the AI community, particularly in the domains of Storytelling and Intelligent Characters. We argue that VR must be considered a particular narrative medium alongside Theatre, Literature or Cinema. This paper reviews relevant work in narrative theory from Plato onwards, including the work and theories of literary critics [1], cinema critics [2–4] and theatrical dramaturges [5], and analyses the specific characteristics of VR relevant to this theory. Less studied media such as Live Role Playing Games, improvisational drama and participatory drama are also considered. Finally, this document argues for a participatoryprocess-oriented narrative, with particular attention to the specificities and particularities of stories and their possible representation, adapted to the narrative medium Virtual Reality.     

Task performance in a head-mounted display: The impacts of varying latency

The purpose of this study was to determine how latency in a head-mounted display (HMD) affects human performance. Virtual environments (VEs) are used frequently for training. However, VEs can cause simulator sickness. Prior work in our laboratory has examined the role of varying latency in simulator sickness. However, the effect of varying latency on task performance has not been examined. Subjects participated in a repeated measures study where they were exposed to two different latency conditions in an HMD: constant (70 ms) and varying (70–270 ms). During each HMD exposure, subjects used a laser pointer to repeatedly “shoot” at laser targets while accuracy and time-to-hit were recorded. Subjects scored fewer hits and took longer to hit targets in the varying latency condition. These findings indicate that individuals exposed to varying latency perform worse than individuals exposed to a lower constant latency.     

A virtual try-on system in augmented reality using RGB-D cameras for footwear personalization

This paper presents a system for design evaluation of footwear using commercial depth-sensing technologies. In a mixed reality environment, the system allows users to virtually try on 3D shoe models in a live video stream. A two-stage object tracking algorithm was developed to correctly align shoe models to moving feet during the try-on process. Color markers on the user's foot enabled markerless tracking. Tracking was driven by an iterative closest point (ICP) algorithm that superimposed the captured depth data and predefined reference foot models. Test data showed that the two-stage approach resulted in increased positional accuracy compared with tracking using only surface registration. Trimming the reference model using the instant view angle increased the computational efficiency of the ICP algorithm. The proposed virtual try-on function is an effective tool for realizing human-centered design. This study also demonstrated a new application of RGB-D cameras to product design.     

The input-interface of Webcam applied in 3D virtual reality systems

Our research explores a virtual reality application based on Web camera (Webcam) input-interface. The interface can replace with the mouse to control direction intention of a user by the method of frame difference. We divide a frame into nine grids from Webcam and make use of the background registration to compute the moving object. In order to make this technology apply to 3D virtual reality system, we use the Virtools Dev to build virtual scenes and the Microsoft Visual C++ to build this interface. We also use the MySQL database management system to access users’ data and the displaying data. We implement a number of Building Blocks (BB) to support Virtools Dev for using the database management system and the Webcam input-interface in this composite system. The results of research are expected to the digital content industries such that users can easy to use the input-interface to control browsing the virtual reality. Our system can supply interactive digital content, photographs, and access the questions from the database management system. In addition, the system provides the browsing mold, the question mold, and the course content describing mold with the input-interface. In order to explore the intention of users for using the system, we design the questionnaire based on the technology acceptance model (TAM). In our empirical study, we find that perceived playfulness is positive association with attitude toward using. Interface style is positive association with perceived ease of use.     

Head-mounted display versus desktop for 3D navigation in virtual reality: a user study

Virtual Reality (VR) has been constantly evolving since its early days, and is now a fundamental technology in different application areas. User evaluation is a crucial step in the design and development of VR systems that do respond to users’ needs, as well as for identifying applications that indeed gain from the use of such technology. Yet, there is not much work reported concerning usability evaluation and validation of VR systems, when compared with the traditional desktop setup. The paper presents a user study performed, as a first step, for the evaluation of a low-cost VR system using a Head-Mounted Display (HMD). That system was compared to a traditional desktop setup through an experiment that assessed user performance, when carrying out navigation tasks in a game scenario for a short period. The results show that, although users were generally satisfied with the VR system, and found the HMD interaction intuitive and natural, most performed better with the desktop setup.

Semiotics of virtual reality as a communication process

ABSTRACT

The experience of immersive virtual reality (VR) can be considered as a communication process between human beings, mediated by computer systems, which uses visualisation and other sensory stimulation. In this paper, we analyse how VR characteristics can be explored using semiotic theory and, with methods of generative semiotics, we explore aspects of narrative and interaction in VR. We propose a semiotic analysis of VR communication focusing on syntax, semantics and pragmatics and considering also some principles of generative semiotics. The syntactic level is analysed as determined by the characteristics of the visual communication adopted. The semantic of VR is related to the functional model chosen to realise the virtual system. The pragmatic of VR is based on the human–computer interaction that changes the user's role. We explore how these aspects can be characterised in the context of VR communication design and what principles can be adopted for a VR application, and we present an analysis and a classification of the iconic signs that are being used in VR. Moreover, we present a framework that can be used to classify and describe different kinds of virtual reality systems and to better understand communication in VR, and we use it to classify eight popular systems for e-learning and collaboration.     

Effects on visual functions during tasks of object handling in virtual environment with a head mounted display

This study examined the effects on visual functions of a prolonged handling task within the helmet-mounted display environment. Both version eye movement and accommodative response became gradually slower during the 40-min task. Although delayed presentation of display after head movement noticeably worsened both visual responses, presentation delay after hand movement did not significantly change the sluggishness of responses. Therefore it is suggested that decreasing time delay after head movement is a more important factor in order to improve human performance of handling tasks within the HMD environment.     

Exploratory factor analysis and validity of the virtual reality symptom questionnaire and computer use survey

Abstract

The widespread use of virtual reality head-mounted-displays (HMDs) calls for a re-examination of the impact of prolonged exposure to fixed visual displays at close ocular proximity. The purpose of this study is to validate the Virtual Reality Symptoms Questionnaire (VRSQ), created to understand symptoms of prolonged HMDs use, and Computer Use Survey (CUS), created to assess general physical and visual discomfort symptoms. Participants (N?=?100) recorded their general discomfort symptoms using the CUS, performed an interactive task using a HMD for thirty minutes, and then answered the CUS again along with the VRSQ. VRSQ, analysed using an exploratory factor analysis, indicated a clear two-factor solution, and demonstrated very good internal consistency (α?=?0.873). The CUS, also analysed using an exploratory factor analysis, indicated a four-factor solution, and demonstrated good internal consistency (α?=?0.838).

Practitioner Summary: A quantitative-experimental study was conducted to explore the factor structure and validate both the Virtual Reality Symptoms Questionnaire (VRSQ), and the Computer Use Survey (CUS). Findings indicate the VRSQ and CUS are precise and accurate survey instruments for evaluating discomfort after VR-HMD use and the latter for computer use.

Abbreviations: VRSQ: virtual reality symptom questionnaire; CUS: computer use survey; OLED: organic light-emitting diode; MSQ: pensacola motion symptom questionnaire; SSQ: simulator sickness questionnaire; 3?D: three-dimensional computer generated space; VR: virtual reality; VR-HMD: virtual reality head-mounted-display; HMDs: head-mounted-displays; EFA: exploratory factor analysis     

A comparative study using an autostereoscopic display with augmented and virtual reality

Advances in display devices are facilitating the integration of stereoscopic visualisation in our daily lives. However, autostereoscopic visualisation has not been extensively exploited. In this paper, we present a system that combines augmented reality (AR) and autostereoscopic visualisation. We also present the first study that compares different aspects using an autostereoscopic display with AR and virtual reality (VR), in which 39 children from 8 to 10 years old participated. In our study, no statistically significant differences were found between AR and VR. However, the scores were very high in nearly all of the questions, and the children also scored the AR version higher in all cases. Moreover, the children explicitly preferred the AR version (81%). For the AR version, a strong and significant correlation was found between the use of the autostereoscopic screen in games and seeing the virtual object on the marker. For the VR version, two strong and significant correlations were found. The first correlation was between the ease of play and the use of the rotatory controller. The second correlation was between depth perception and the game global score. Therefore, the combinations of AR and VR with autostereoscopic visualisation are possibilities for developing edutainment systems for children.     

A methodology for solid modelling in a virtual reality environment

This paper presents a methodology for solid modelling in a virtual reality (VR) environment. Solid modelling in the VR environment is precisely performed in an intuitive manner through constraint-based manipulations. A hierarchically structured and constraint-based data model is developed to support solid modelling in the VR environment. Constraint-based manipulations are realized by allowable motions for precise 3D interactions in the VR environment. A mathematical matrix is presented for representing allowable motions. A procedure-based degree-of-freedom combination method for 3D constraint solving is presented for deriving the allowable motions from constraints. A rule-based constraint recognition engine is developed for both constraint-based manipulations and implicitly incorporating constraints into the VR environment. A prototype system has been implemented to testify the feasibility of the presented methodology.     

Comprehensive modelling and simulation of cylindrical nanoparticles manipulation by using a virtual reality environment

With the expansion of nanotechnology, robots based on atomic force microscope (AFM) have been widely used as effective tools for displacing nanoparticles and constructing nanostructures. One of the most limiting factors in AFM-based manipulation procedures is the inability of simultaneously observing the controlled pushing and displacing of nanoparticles while performing the operation. To deal with this limitation, a virtual reality environment has been used in this paper for observing the manipulation operation. In the simulations performed in this paper, first, the images acquired by the atomic force microscope have been processed and the positions and dimensions of nanoparticles have been determined. Then, by dynamically modelling the transfer of nanoparticles and simulating the critical force-time diagrams, a controlled displacement of nanoparticles has been accomplished. The simulations have been further developed for the use of rectangular, V-shape and dagger-shape cantilevers. The established virtual reality environment has made it possible to simulate the manipulation of biological particles in a liquid medium.     

Signage visibility analysis and optimization system using BIM-enabled virtual reality (VR) environments

The proper placement of signage greatly influences pathfinding and information provision in public spaces. Clear visibility, easy comprehension, and efficient placement are all important for successful signage. We propose a signage visibility analysis and optimization system, utilizing an updated Building Information Model (BIM) and a game engine software application to simulate the movement of pedestrians. BIM can provide an up-to-date digital representation of a building and its assets, while computer simulation environments have the potential to simulate the movement of pedestrians. Combining these two technologies provides an opportunity to create a tool that analyzes the efficiency of installed signage and visualizes them in VR environments. The proposed tool contains algorithms, functions and predefined scenarios to calculate the coverage and the visibility of a building’s signage system. This system assists building managers to analyze (visually or by using statistics) the visibility of signboards, to assess their proper placement, and to optimize their placement. The applicability of the method has been validated in case studies performed in subway stations in Japan.